Corrigendum: The effects of executive functions on language control during Chinese-English emotional word code-switching

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1087513.].

Cropland nitrous oxide emissions exceed the emissions of RCP 2.6: A global spatial analysis

Nitrous oxide (N₂O), as a potent greenhouse gas, must be limited to prevent the global temperature increasing by >2 °C. Cropland is the largest source of anthropogenic N₂O emissions; however, earlier estimates for emissions and their exceedances still remain uncertainties. Here, we used a spatially explicit model to estimate cropland N₂O emission in 2014 by refined grid-level crop-specific EFs and considered the background emission. We also sought to determine where N₂O emissions exceed the "boundary" through analysis of spatial data from representative concentration pathway (RCP) 2.6. The global cropland N₂O emission was 2.92 ± 0.59 Tg N yr^-1, which far exceeds the 0.82 Tg N yr^-1 boundary, over 90 % of cropland areas exceeded the boundary. Western Europe, Southeastern China, Pakistan, and the Ganges Plain exceeded the boundary by >2 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1. The boundary exceedances showed a positive linear response with respect to total cropland emission and a quadratic response to GDP per capita at the country level. Our study highlights the necessity of accurate estimations of spatial variations in cropland N₂O emissions and evaluation of exceedances, to facilitate the development of more effective mitigation measures in different regions.

The effects of executive functions on language control during Chinese-English emotional word code-switching

Executive functions (EFs) have great impact on language control indexed by language switch costs during production-based language switching. Yet, how they influence language control during comprehension-based language switching between embodied first language (L1, Chinese) emotional words and less embodied second language (L2, English) emotional words is less understood. Employing an emotional priming paradigm, this study recruited Chinese-English bilinguals as participants, and used emotional faces and words as experimental materials to explore the effects of cool [i.e., inhibitory control ability, IC ability] and hot (i.e., emotional valence and emotional congruency) EFs on language switch costs (i.e., language control) during Chinese-English emotional word comprehension. The results showed larger language switch costs in the emotional congruent condition relative to emotional conflict condition, larger Chinese switch costs than English switch costs, and larger language switch costs for negative over positive emotional words in the emotional congruent condition. In addition, high-IC participants showed larger English switch costs for negative emotional words compared with low-IC participants. These results indicated that hot EF and the embodiment of language had an impact on both language control and the modulation of cool EF on language control, and that the components of hot EFs interacted and jointly affected language control during language switching.

Real-World Emission Characteristics of Environmentally Persistent Free Radicals in PM2.5 from Residential Solid Fuel Combustion

Environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) can induce reactive oxygen species, causing adverse health impacts, and residential fuel (biomass and coal) combustion is believed to be an important emission source for EPFRs; however, the residential emission characteristics of EPFRs are rarely studied in the real world. Here, we conducted a field campaign evaluating the presence and characteristics of EPFRs generated from residential biomass and coal burning in rural China. The emission factors (EFs) of EPFRs (with units of 10²⁰ spins·kg^-1) in PM_2.5 from the combustion of crop residues (3.97 ± 0.47) were significantly higher than those from firewood (2.06 ± 0.19) and coal (2.13 ± 0.33) (p < 0.05). The EPFRs from residential solid fuel combustion were carbon-centered free radicals adjacent to oxygen atoms. The fuel type was a primary factor controlling EPFR discharge, explaining 68% of the variation in EPFR EFs. The emissions from biomass burning had higher EPFRs per particle than those from coal combustion. EPFRs had stronger relationships with carbonaceous components than with other incomplete combustion products. The EPFRs from biomass burning were mostly generated during the pyrolysis of fuels, while the EPFRs generated from coal combustion were mainly associated with refractory organic compounds. This study provides valuable information for evaluating the fates of EPFRs, promoting a better understanding of the health impacts of air pollution.

Emission factors of environmentally persistent free radicals in PM2.5 from rural residential solid fuels combusted in a traditional stove

Emission factors (EFs) are crucial for establishing emission inventory and subsequent health risk assessment of pollutants. However, the EFs of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) in PM_2.5 have not been well investigated. We measured EPFRs in PM_2.5 from burning of different solid fuels in a traditional stove widely used in rural China and calculated the EFs of EPFRs (EF_EPFRs). The characteristics of EPFRs varied greatly with PM_2.5 depending on the feedstock, and the EF_EPFRs of crop residue, firewood and bitumite was 2.13 ± 1.04, 1.40 ± 0.76 and 1.08 ± 0.39 (10²⁰ spins·kg^-1), respectively. The estimated results of EPFRs emission associated with PM_2.5 showed that the crop residue was the main contributor to the top four provinces with high EPFRs emissions in China in 2010. A wide range (0.03-4.89 cig·person^-1·day^-1) of equivalent cigarette number converted by inhaling EPFRs in PM_2.5 was observed. Provinces with higher equivalent cigarette number were mainly agricultural provinces, because the rural residents tend to use readily available fuels. Additionally, EPFRs in collected PM_2.5 during 2 - month photoaging were more stable in particles with higher organic carbon contents. Our findings provided a new insight into the risk assessment of PM_2.5 from different sources by taking EPFRs into consideration.

Characterization of PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives (nitro-and oxy-PAHs) emissions from two ship engines under different operating conditions

Emissions from ship exhaust have been recognized as an important source of air pollution in coastal areas. To investigate the impacts of engine type, fuel and operating conditions on polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) emissions, particle matter (PM_2.5) samples emitted from an inland-river bulk freighter (BF) using marine diesel oil (MDO) and an ocean-going passenger vessel (PV) using heavy fuel oil (HFO) were collected under five operation conditions (preheating, leaving, cruising, entering and berthing). The concentrations of 17 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 12 nitro-PAHs (NPAHs) and 4 oxygenated-PAHs species were determined. The concentrations of ΣPAHs, ΣNPAHs and ΣOPAHs measured on the BF and PV exhausts ranged from 1.95 to 417 μg/m³, 86.5 to 6.89 × 10³ ng/m³ and 2.00-102 μg/m³, respectively. Both ships showed a high proportion of four-ring PAHs, while the BF had more three-ring PAHs (34.00-70.38%) and the PV had more five-ring PAHs (30.02-35.95%). The calculation of indicatory PACs are able to increase the precision of source appointment. The emission factors (EFs) of PACs under maneuvering (including preheating, leaving, entering and berthing) was much higher than those under cruising, which might be due to the engine load, fuel consumption, and secondary reactions. Compared with HFO, combustion with MDO decreased the power-based ΣPAH EFs by 82-99%, power-based ΣNPAH EFs by 86-98%, and power-based ΣOPAHs EFs by 50-82%. These data highlight the importance of quantifying and monitoring ship emissions in close proximity to port area, and are useful for enhancing the relevant databases and improving the accuracy of ship emission inventories.

Modelling the interactions between C and N farm balances and GHG emissions from confinement dairy farms in northern Spain

There is world-wide concern for the contribution of dairy farming to global warming. However, there is still a need to improve the quantification of the C-footprint of dairy farming systems under different production systems and locations since most of the studies (e.g. at farm-scale or using LCA) have been carried out using too simplistic and generalised approaches. A modelling approach integrating existing and new sub-models has been developed and used to simulate the C and N flows and to predict the GHG burden of milk production (from the cradle to the farm gate) from 17 commercial confinement dairy farms in the Basque Country (northern Spain). We studied the relationship between their GHG emissions, and their management and economic performance. Additionally, we explored some of the effects on the GHG results of the modelling methodology choice. The GHG burden values resulting from this study (0.84-2.07 kg CO2-eq kg(-l) milk ECM), although variable, were within the range of values of existing studies. It was evidenced, however, that the methodology choice used for prediction had a large effect on the results. Methane from the rumen and manures, and N2O emissions from soils comprised most of the GHG emissions for milk production. Diet was the strongest factor explaining differences in GHG emissions from milk production. Moreover, the proportion of feed from the total cattle diet that could have directly been used to feed humans (e.g. cereals) was a good indicator to predict the C-footprint of milk. Not only were some other indicators, such as those in relation with farm N use efficiency, good proxies to estimate GHG emissions per ha or per kg milk ECM (C-footprint of milk) but they were also positively linked with farm economic performance.

Genes alternations with exposure time of environmental factors

A theoretical model discussing the environmental factors (EFs) effect of exposure time on genes, which leads to human diseases, is presented using multi-logistic model. The advantages and limitations of this model are discussed in terms of its usefulness for simulating genetic samples. It has been shown that EFs affect genes with the same degree both at high exposure level, low exposure time and at low exposure level, high exposure time.