Comprehensive Analysis of Penicillium Sclerotiorum: Biology, Secondary Metabolites, and Bioactive Compound Potential─A Review

The filamentous fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum is significant in ecological and industrial domains due to its vast supply of secondary metabolites that have a diverse array of biological functions. We have gathered the metabolic potential and biological activities associated with P. sclerotiorum metabolites of various structures, based on extensive research of the latest literature. The review incorporated literature spanning from 2000 to 2023, drawing from reputable databases including Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and PubMed, among others. Ranging from azaphilones, meroterpenoids, polyketides, and peptides group exhibits fascinating potential pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor effects, holding promise in pharmaceutical and industrial sectors. Additionally, P. sclerotiorum showcases biotechnological potential through the production of enzymes like β-xylosidases, β-d-glucosidase, and xylanases, pivotal in various industrial processes. This review underscores the need for further exploration into its genetic foundations and cultivation conditions to optimize the yield of valuable compounds and enzymes, highlighting the unexplored potential of P. sclerotiorum in diverse applications across industries.

Seven new meroterpenoids from the fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum GZU-XW03-2

Seven previously undescribed meroterpenoids, peniscmeroterpenoids H - N (1-7), were isolated from the marine-derived fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum GZU-XW03-2. Their structures were established by the spectroscopic methods and the electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. Peniscmeroterpenoid H was a 6/6/6/5/6 rearranged pentacyclic meroterpenoid, featuring a unique 2-oxaspiro[5.5] undeca-4,7-dien-3-one motif. Peniscmeroterpenoids I and J (2 and 3) owned rare 6(D)/5(E) fused rings were not common in natural products, and compound 2 was the second example of a berkeleyone analogue stripped of the methyl ester fragment. Peniscmeroterpenoid K (4) was the first case where the C-24 was oxidized. In bioassay, compound 5 showed moderate anti-inflammatory activity.

New Azaphilones from the Marine-Derived Fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum E23Y-1A with Their Anti-Inflammatory and Antitumor Activities

Nine new azaphilones, including penicilazaphilones I-N (1, 2 and 6-9), epi-geumsanol D (3) and penidioxolanes C (4) and D (5) were isolated from the culture of the marine-derived fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum E23Y-1A. The structures of the isolates were deduced from extensive spectroscopic data (1D and 2D NMR), high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HRESIMS), and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. All the azaphilones from P. sclerotiorum E23Y-1A were tested for their anti-inflammatory and antitumor activities. Penicilazaphilone N (9) showed moderate anti-inflammatory activity with an IC₅₀ value of 22.63 ± 2.95 μM, whereas penidioxolane C (4) exhibited moderate inhibition against human myeloid leukemia cells (K562), human liver cancer cells (BEL-7402), human gastric cancer cells (SGC-7901), human non-small cell lung cancer cells (A549), and human hela cervical cancer cells, with IC₅₀ values of 23.94 ± 0.11, 60.66 ± 0.13, 46.17 ± 0.17, 60.16 ± 0.26, and 59.30 ± 0.60 μM, respectively.

Meroterpenoids from the fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum GZU-XW03-2 and their anti-inflammatory activity

Seven undescribed meroterpenoids, peniscmeroterpenoids A - G, were isolated from the marine-derived fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum GZU-XW03-2. Their structures were established by the spectroscopic methods and the electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. Peniscmeroterpenoid A possessed an unprecedented and highly oxidized 6/7/6/5/5 pentacyclic system, featuring a unique tetrahydrofuro [2,3-b]furan-2(3H)-one motif. Peniscmeroterpenoids B - E owned rare 6(D)/5(E) fused rings were not common in natural products, and peniscmeroterpenoid E is the first example of a berkeleyone analogue stripped of the methyl ester fragment. In bioassays, peniscmeroterpenoids A and D inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO) in RAW264.7 cells with IC₅₀ values of 26.60 ± 1.15 and 8.79 ± 1.22 μM. Moreover, peniscmeroterpenoid D significantly suppressed the production of pro-inflammatory mediators (COX-2, IL-1β and IL-6) and the protein expression of the enzyme iNOS.

New chromone analog and pyrrole alkaloid produced by Penicillium sclerotiorum and their antibacterial activity

A new chromone analog (1) and a new pyrrole alkaloid (2), together with four known compounds, were isolated from the endophytic fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum MPT-250 obtained from the stems of Taxus wallichiana var. chinensis (Pilger) Florin. The structural elucidation of these metabolites was performed by high-resolution mass spectrometry and NMR spectroscopy. Compounds 1 and 5 exhibited significant antibacterial activity against carbapenems-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecium with an minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value of 3.13 μg/ml respectively.

Phytotoxic Azaphilones From the Mangrove-Derived Fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum HY5

Mangrove is a unique marine ecosystem growing in the intertidal zone of tropical and subtropical coast, with the characteristics of hypoxia tolerance, high salinity, and high humidity. In order to discover novel leading compounds with potent phytotoxicity, seven pairs of azaphilones E/Z isomers, isochromophilone H (1a/1b), sclerotiorins A and B (2a/2b and 3a/3b), ochlephilone (4a/4b), isochromophilone IV (5a/5b), isochromophilone J (6a/6b), and isochromophilone I (7a/7b), were isolated from the culture broth of the mangrove-derived fungus, the Penicillium sclerotiorum HY5, by various chromatographic methods. Among them, 1a, 1b, 2a, 3a, 4a, 5a, 6a, and 6b were new compounds. Their chemical structures and absolute configurations were elucidated based on high resolution electrospray ionization mass spectroscopy (HRESIMS), 1D/2D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic analysis, and comparisons of electronic circular dichroism (ECD) data. Compounds 3, 4, and 7 exhibited potent phytotoxicity against the growth of radicle and plumule on Amaranthus retroflexus L., with EC₅₀ values ranging from 234.87 to 320.84 μM, compared to the positive control glufosinate-ammonium, with EC₅₀ values of 555.11 μM for radicle, and 656.04 μM for plumule. Compounds 4 and 7 also showed inhibitory effects on the growth of velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti Medikus), with EC₅₀ values ranging from 768.97 to 1,201.52 μM. This study provides new leading compounds for the research and development of marine-derived bioherbicides.

Azaphilone derivatives with anti-inflammatory activity from the mangrove endophytic fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum ZJHJJ-18

Nine undescribed azaphilone derivatives, sclerazaphilones A-H (1-9), and three known analogues (10-12), were obtained and identified from the fermented rice cultures of a mangrove endophytic fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum ZJHJJ-18. 1D and 2D NMR, HRESIMS and spectral data indicated the chemical structures of 1-9, and their absolute configurations were assigned by experimental and computational analyses of electronic circular dichroism (ECD) spectra, and application of the chemical transformations. Compounds 1-4 were the first reported N-containing azaphilone derivatives with 5/6 dicyclic core. The bioassay results showed that compounds 3-5 exhibited effective inhibitory effects on the nitric oxide (NO) production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 macrophage cells with IC₅₀ values in the range of 6.30-9.45 μM. Moreover, a molecular docking study was conducted to investigate the probable binding interaction of 3-5 with inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS).

Anti-Inflammatory Azaphilones from the Edible Alga-Derived Fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum

To discover the new medical entity from edible marine algae, our continuously natural product investigation focused on endophytes from marine macroalgae Grateloupia sp. Two new azaphilones, 8a-epi-hypocrellone A (1), 8a-epi-eupenicilazaphilone C (2), together with five known azaphilones, hypocrellone A (3), eupenicilazaphilone C (4), ((1E,3E)-3,5-dimethylhepta-1,3-dien-1-yl)-2,4-dihydroxy-3-methylbenzaldehyde (5), sclerotiorin (6), and isochromophilone IV (7) were isolated from the alga-derived fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum. The structures of isolated azaphilones (1–7) were elucidated by spectrometric identification, especially HRESIMS, CD, and NMR data analyses. Concerning bioactivity, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-fibrosis activities of those isolates were evaluated. As a result, compound 1 showed selective toxicity toward neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y among seven cancer and one fibroblast cell lines. 20 μM of compounds 1, 3, and 7 inhibited the TNF-α-induced NFκB phosphorylation but did not change the NFκB activity. Compounds 2 and 6 respectively promoted and inhibited SMAD-mediated transcriptional activities stimulated by TGF-β.

Dereplication, Annotation, and Characterization of 74 Potential Antimicrobial Metabolites from Penicillium Sclerotiorum Using t-SNE Molecular Networks

Microorganisms associated with termites are an original resource for identifying new chemical scaffolds or active metabolites. A molecular network was generated from a collection of strain extracts analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem high-resolution mass spectrometry, a molecular network was generated, and activities against the human pathogens methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans and Trichophyton rubrum were mapped, leading to the selection of a single active extract of Penicillium sclerotiorum SNB-CN111. This fungal species is known to produce azaphilones, a colorful family of polyketides with a wide range of biological activities and economic interests in the food industry. By exploring the molecular network data, it was shown that the chemical diversity related to the P. sclerotiorum metabolome largely exceeded the data already reported in the literature. According to the described fragmentation pathways of protonated azaphilones, the annotation of 74 azaphilones was proposed, including 49 never isolated or synthesized thus far. Our hypothesis was validated by the isolation and characterization of eight azaphilones, among which three new azaphilones were chlorogeumasnol (63), peniazaphilone E (74) and 7-deacetylisochromophilone VI (80).

Azaphilones from the Marine Sponge-Derived Fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum OUCMDZ-3839

Four new azaphilones, sclerotiorins A-D (1-4), as well as the dimeric sclerotiorin E (5) of which we first determined its absolute configuration, and 12 known analogues (5-16) were isolated from the fermentation broth of Penicillium sclerotiorum OUCMDZ-3839 associated with a marine sponge Paratetilla sp.. The new structures, including absolute configurations, were elucidated by spectroscopic analyses, optical rotation, ECD spectra, X-ray single-crystal diffraction, and chemical transformations. Compounds 11 and 14 displayed significant inhibitory activity against α-glycosidase, with IC₅₀ values of 17.3 and 166.1 μM, respectively. In addition, compounds 5, 7, 10, 12-14, and 16 showed moderate bioactivity against H1N1 virus.

Azaphilone Alkaloids with Anti-inflammatory Activity from Fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum cib-411

Nine new azaphilone alkaloids, penazaphilones A-I (1-9), were isolated from the solid fermented rice culture of Penicillium sclerotiorum cib-411. The structures of compounds 1-9 were elucidated based on HRESIMS, NMR, and CD spectroscopic data. The structures of 5 and 8 were confirmed by X-ray crystallographic analyses. Biological evaluation showed that compounds 1, 5, 6, and 8 inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO) on RAW 264.7 cells stimulated by lipopolysaccharide with IC₅₀ values of 15.29, 9.34, 9.50, and 7.05 μM, respectively. Meanwhile, they did not exhibit obvious cytotoxicity at a concentration of 50.0 μM.

induces cell cycle arrest leading to apoptosis through mitochondrial membrane depolarization in human cervical cancer cells

Seventeen endophytic fungi were isolated from various tissues of Cassia fistula and the ethyl acetate extracts obtained from 21-day cultures of all the endophytic fungal isolates were initially screened for their cytotoxicity against HeLa (human cervical carcinoma) cells using MTT assay. Of these, Penicillium sclerotiorum extract (PSE), significantly affected the viability of HeLa cells in a dose-dependent manner. The extract of P. Sclerotiorum was further analyzed by GC-MS, which showed three compounds, hexadecanoic acid, oleic acid and benzoic acid to be the major active principles in the extracts.The extract was further tested for invitro cytotoxicity against five cancer cell lines. Of the cell lines tested, HeLa cells showed maximum sensitivity followed by A549, while A431 and U251 were moderately sensitive and MCF-7 was insensitive to the treatment. In addition, normal human embryonic kidney cells, HEK293 remained insensitive to the treatment. Furthermore, the mechanism of cytotoxic activity exhibited by PSE was investigated by evaluating cell cycle progression and apoptotic induction in HeLa cells. Cell cycle analysis revealed that the PSE arrested cells at S and G2/M phase of the cell cycle in a dose-dependent manner. Annexin V- Propidium iodide double staining showed that, the extract potentiates apoptosis rather than necrosis in cells. This was supported by the down regulation in the proapoptotic protein BCL2 and up regulation of BAX (BCL2 Associated X), tumor suppressor protein, p53 and Apaf-1 [Apoptotic Peptidase Activating Factor 1]. Loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and a distinct DNA fragmentation pattern observed following the treatment, suggest that the PSE treatment leads to activation of mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis. Further, the extract also exhibited both antioxidant and anti-angiogenic properties. These results indicate that endophytic fungi isolated from medicinal plants may serve as potential sources of the anti-cancerous compounds.

Penicilazaphilone C, a new antineoplastic and antibacterial azaphilone from the Marine Fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum

Two azaphilonidal derivatives [penicilazaphilones B (1) and C (2)], have been isolated from the fermented products of marine fungus strain Penicillium sclerotiorum M-22, penicilazaphilones C was a new compound. The compound's structures were identified by the analysis of spectroscopic data including 1D and 2D NMR techniques (¹H-NMR, ¹³C-NMR, COSY, HMQC, and HMBC). Biological evaluation revealed that penicilazaphilones B and C showed selective cytotoxicity against melanoma cells B-16 and human gastric cancer cells SGC-7901 with IC₅₀ values of 0.291, 0.449 and 0.065, 0.720 mM, respectively, while exhibiting no significant toxicity to normal mammary epithelial cells M10 at the same concentration. Moreover, penicilazaphilones C also exhibited strong antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia and Escherichia coli with MIC values 0.037-0.150 mM, while penicilazaphilones B's bacteriostatic action was weaker.

(+)-Cyclopenol, a new naturally occurring 7-membered 2,5-dioxopiperazine alkaloid from the fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum endogenous with the Chinese mangrove Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

One new naturally occurring 7-membered 2,5-dioxopiperazine alkaloid named (+)-cyclopenol (1), along with nine known compounds including viridicatol (2), 3-(dimethylaminomethyl)-1-(1,1-dimethyl-2-propenyl)indole (3), anacine (4), aurantiomide C (5), viridicatin (6), 3-O-methylviridicatin (7), verrucosidin (8), ergosterol (9), and ergosterol peroxide (10), was isolated from the EtOAc extract of fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum, an endophytic fungal strain isolated from Chinese mangrove Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. The chemical structure of the new compound 1 was elucidated on the basis of detailed spectroscopic analysis. The absolute configuration of 1 was determined by single-crystal X-ray analysis with Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.54178 Å). To our knowledge, (+)-cyclopenol (1) represents the first example of 7-membered 2,5-dioxopiperazine isolated from mangrove endophytic fungus.