Widespread S-persulfidation in activated macrophages as a protective mechanism against oxidative-inflammatory stress

Acute inflammatory responses often involve the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species by innate immune cells, particularly macrophages. How activated macrophages protect themselves in the face of oxidative-inflammatory stress remains a long-standing question. Recent evidence implicates reactive sulfur species (RSS) in inflammatory responses; however, how endogenous RSS affect macrophage function and response to oxidative and inflammatory insults remains poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the endogenous pathways of RSS biogenesis and clearance in macrophages, with a particular focus on exploring how hydrogen sulfide (H2S)-mediated S-persulfidation influences macrophage responses to oxidative-inflammatory stress. We show that classical activation of mouse or human macrophages using lipopolysaccharide and interferon-γ (LPS/IFN-γ) triggers substantial production of H2S/RSS, leading to widespread protein persulfidation. Biochemical and proteomic analyses revealed that this surge in cellular S-persulfidation engaged ∼2% of total thiols and modified over 800 functionally diverse proteins. S-persulfidation was found to be largely dependent on the cystine importer xCT and the H2S-generating enzyme cystathionine γ-lyase and was independent of changes in the global proteome. We further investigated the role of the sulfide-oxidizing enzyme sulfide quinone oxidoreductase (SQOR), and found that it acts as a negative regulator of S-persulfidation. Elevated S-persulfidation following LPS/IFN-γ stimulation or SQOR inhibition was associated with increased resistance to oxidative stress. Upregulation of persulfides also inhibited the activation of the macrophage NLRP3 inflammasome and provided protection against inflammatory cell death. Collectively, our findings shed light on the metabolism and effects of RSS in macrophages and highlight the crucial role of persulfides in enabling macrophages to withstand and alleviate oxidative-inflammatory stress.

Emergence of (hydro)persulfides as suppressors of lipid peroxidation and ferroptotic cell death

Recognition of the prevalence of hydropersulfides (RSSH) and characterization of their enhanced two-electron reactivity relative to thiols have led to their implication in maintaining cellular redox homeostasis, in addition to other potential roles. Recent attention on the one-electron reactivity of RSSH has uncovered their potent radical-trapping antioxidant activity, which enables them to inhibit phospholipid peroxidation and associated cell death by ferroptosis. Herein, we briefly review key aspects of the reactivity and underlying physicochemical properties of RSSH. We emphasize their reactivity to radicals-particularly lipid peroxyl radicals that propagate the lipid peroxidation chain reaction-and the recent recognition that this results in ferroptosis suppression. We highlight open questions related to recent developments in this area and, given that all living organisms possess the ability to synthesize persulfides endogenously, suggest they may be primordial radical scavengers that occurred early in evolution and still play a role today.

The mechanism of action of N-acetylcysteine (NAC): The emerging role of H2S and sulfane sulfur species

Initially adopted as a mucolytic about 60 years ago, the cysteine prodrug N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is the standard of care to treat paracetamol intoxication, and is included on the World Health Organization's list of essential medicines. Additionally, NAC increasingly became the epitome of an "antioxidant". Arguably, it is the most widely used "antioxidant" in experimental cell and animal biology, as well as clinical studies. Most investigators use and test NAC with the idea that it prevents or attenuates oxidative stress. Conventionally, it is assumed that NAC acts as (i) a reductant of disulfide bonds, (ii) a scavenger of reactive oxygen species and/or (iii) a precursor for glutathione biosynthesis. While these mechanisms may apply under specific circumstances, they cannot be generalized to explain the effects of NAC in a majority of settings and situations. In most cases the mechanism of action has remained unclear and untested. In this review, we discuss the validity of conventional assumptions and the scope of a newly discovered mechanism of action, namely the conversion of NAC into hydrogen sulfide and sulfane sulfur species. The antioxidative and cytoprotective activities of per- and polysulfides may explain many of the effects that have previously been ascribed to NAC or NAC-derived glutathione.

Long-lasting blood pressure lowering effects of nitrite are NO-independent and mediated by hydrogen peroxide, persulfides, and oxidation of protein kinase G1α redox signalling

AIMS

Under hypoxic conditions, nitrite (NO2-) can be reduced to nitric oxide (NO) eliciting vasorelaxation. However, nitrite also exerts vasorelaxant effects of potential therapeutic relevance under normal physiological conditions via undetermined mechanisms. We, therefore, sought to investigate the mechanism(s) by which nitrite regulates the vascular system in normoxia and, specifically, whether the biological effects are a result of NO generation (as in hypoxia) or mediated via alternative mechanisms involving classical downstream targets of NO [e.g. effects on protein kinase G1α (PKG1α)].

METHODS AND RESULTS

Ex vivo myography revealed that, unlike in thoracic aorta (conduit vessels), the vasorelaxant effects of nitrite in mesenteric resistance vessels from wild-type (WT) mice were NO-independent. Oxidants such as H2O2 promote disulfide formation of PKG1α, resulting in NO- cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) independent kinase activation. To explore whether the microvascular effects of nitrite were associated with PKG1α oxidation, we used a Cys42Ser PKG1α knock-in (C42S PKG1α KI; 'redox-dead') mouse that cannot transduce oxidant signals. Resistance vessels from these C42S PKG1α KI mice were markedly less responsive to nitrite-induced vasodilation. Intraperitoneal (i.p.) bolus application of nitrite in conscious WT mice induced a rapid yet transient increase in plasma nitrite and cGMP concentrations followed by prolonged hypotensive effects, as assessed using in vivo telemetry. In the C42S PKG1α KI mice, the blood pressure lowering effects of nitrite were lower compared to WT. Increased H2O2 concentrations were detected in WT resistance vessel tissue challenged with nitrite. Consistent with this, increased cysteine and glutathione persulfide levels were detected in these vessels by mass spectrometry, matching the temporal profile of nitrite's effects on H2O2 and blood pressure.

CONCLUSION

Under physiological conditions, nitrite induces a delayed and long-lasting blood pressure lowering effect, which is NO-independent and occurs via a new redox mechanism involving H2O2, persulfides, and PKG1α oxidation/activation. Targeting this novel pathway may provide new prospects for anti-hypertensive therapy.

A robust and versatile mass spectrometry platform for comprehensive assessment of the thiol redox metabolome

Several diseases are associated with perturbations in redox signaling and aberrant hydrogen sulfide metabolism, and numerous analytical methods exist for the measurement of the sulfur-containing species affected. However, uncertainty remains about their concentrations and speciation in cells/biofluids, perhaps in part due to differences in sample processing and detection principles. Using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography in combination with electrospray-ionization tandem mass spectrometry we here outline a specific and sensitive platform for the simultaneous measurement of 12 analytes, including total and free thiols, their disulfides and sulfide in complex biological matrices such as blood, saliva and urine. Total assay run time is < 10 min, enabling high-throughput analysis. Enhanced sensitivity and avoidance of artifactual thiol oxidation is achieved by taking advantage of the rapid reaction of sulfhydryl groups with N-ethylmaleimide. We optimized the analytical procedure for detection and separation conditions, linearity and precision including three stable isotope labelled standards. Its versatility for future more comprehensive coverage of the thiol redox metabolome was demonstrated by implementing additional analytes such as methanethiol, N-acetylcysteine, and coenzyme A. Apparent plasma sulfide concentrations were found to vary substantially with sample pretreatment and nature of the alkylating agent. In addition to protein binding in the form of mixed disulfides (S-thiolation) a significant fraction of aminothiols and sulfide appears to be also non-covalently associated with proteins. Methodological accuracy was tested by comparing the plasma redox status of 10 healthy human volunteers to a well-established protocol optimized for reduced/oxidized glutathione. In a proof-of-principle study a deeper analysis of the thiol redox metabolome including free reduced/oxidized as well as bound thiols and sulfide was performed. Additional determination of acid-labile sulfide/thiols was demonstrated in human blood cells, urine and saliva. Using this simplified mass spectrometry-based workflow the thiol redox metabolome can be determined in samples from clinical and translational studies, providing a novel prognostic/diagnostic platform for patient stratification, drug monitoring, and identification of new therapeutic approaches in redox diseases.

Micro-oxygenation does not eliminate hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans from wine; it simply shifts redox and complex-related equilibria to reversible oxidized species and complexed forms

This work seeks to assess the effects of micro-oxygenation (MOX) on the present and potential levels of Volatile Sulfur Compounds (VSCs) of wine. With such purpose, three red wines with a tendency to develop sulfury off-odors were subjected to three different MOX conditions (4.4-20mg/L delivered at 0.05 or 0.2mg/L/day). Samples were further subjected to Accelerated Reductive aging (AR) and analyzed for free and Brine Releasable (BR) VSCs and redox potential. Although MOX induced strong decreases in the levels of all free VSCs, hardly affected the ability of the wine to release back hydrogen sulfide and other mercaptans during AR-aging. During aging BR-levels of MOX samples became in most cases similar or higher than non-oxygenated controls. BR-levels and the fractions free/BR follow characteristic sigmoid plots when represented versus redox potential suggesting that all changes are the result of reversible equilibria between free, metal-complexed and oxidized forms of VSCs.

1,4-Naphthoquinone activates the HSP90/HSF1 pathway through the S-arylation of HSP90 in A431 cells: Negative regulation of the redox signal transduction pathway by persulfides/polysulfides

The current consensus is that environmental electrophiles activate redox signal transduction pathways through covalent modification of sensor proteins with reactive thiol groups at low concentrations, while they cause cell damage at higher concentrations. We previously exposed human carcinoma A431 cells to the atmospheric electrophile 1,4-naphthoquinone (1,4-NQ) and found that heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), a negative regulator of heat shock factor 1 (HSF1), was a target of 1,4-NQ. In the study presented here, we determined whether 1,4-NQ activates HSF1. We also examined whether such redox signaling could be regulated by nucleophilic sulfur species. Exposure of A431 cells to 1,4-NQ covalently modified cellular HSP90, resulting in repression of the association between HSF1 with HSP90, thereby enhancing HSF1 translocation into the nuclei. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis with recombinant HSP90 revealed that the modifications site were Cys412 and Cys564. We found that HSF1 activation mediated by 1,4-NQ upregulated downstream genes, such as HSPA6. HSF1 knockdown accelerated 1,4-NQ-mediated cytotoxicity in the cells. While simultaneous treatment with reactive persulfide and polysulfide, Na₂S₂ and Na₂S₄, blocked 1,4-NQ-dependent protein modification and HSF1 activation in A431 cells, the knockdown of Cys persulfide producing enzymes cystathionine β-synthase (CBS) and/or cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE) enhanced these phenomena. 1,4-NQ-thiol adduct and 1,4-NQ-S-1,4-NQ adduct were produced during the enzymatic reaction of recombinant CSE in the presence of 1,4-NQ. The results suggest that activation of the HSP90-HSF1 signal transduction pathway mediated by 1,4-NQ protects cells against 1,4-NQ and that per/polysulfides can diminish the reactivity of 1,4-NQ by forming sulfur adducts.

Reactions of isolated persulfides provide insights into the interplay between H2S and persulfide reactivity

Hydrogen sulfide is ubiquitous in biological systems and exerts function over a wide range of important physiological processes. Complementing free H2S, the reductant-labile sulfur pool plays significant roles in the translocation and action of sulfide, however the chemistry of reductant-labile sulfide sources has not been studied systematically. Using a combination of NMR and UV-Vis spectroscopy, we investigated the spectroscopic properties and reactivity of three isolated organic persulfides and report a simple model for persulfide reactivity, including their roles as nucleophiles, electrophiles, and sulfide donors.

Insights into the mechanism of the reaction between hydrogen sulfide and peroxynitrite

Hydrogen sulfide and peroxynitrite are endogenously generated molecules that participate in biologically relevant pathways. A revision of the kinetic features of the reaction between peroxynitrite and hydrogen sulfide revealed a complex process. The rate constant of peroxynitrite decay, (6.65 ± 0.08) × 10(3) M(-1) s(-1) in 0.05 M sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.4, 37°C), was affected by the concentration of buffer. Theoretical modeling suggested that, as in the case of thiols, the reaction is initiated by the nucleophilic attack of HS(-) on the peroxide group of ONOOH by a typical bimolecular nucleophilic substitution, yielding HSOH and NO2(-). In contrast to thiols, the reaction then proceeds to the formation of distinct products that absorb near 408 nm. Experiments in the presence of scavengers and carbon dioxide showed that free radicals are unlikely to be involved in the formation of these products. The results are consistent with product formation involving the reactive intermediate HSSH and its fast reaction with a second peroxynitrite molecule. Mass spectrometry and UV-Vis absorption spectra predictions suggest that at least one of the products is HSNO2 or its isomer HSONO.

Redox chemistry and chemical biology of H2S, hydropersulfides, and derived species: implications of their possible biological activity and utility

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an endogenously generated and putative signaling/effector molecule. Despite its numerous reported functions, the chemistry by which it elicits its functions is not understood. Moreover, recent studies allude to the existence of other sulfur species besides H2S that may play critical physiological roles. Herein, the basic chemical biology of H2S as well as other related or derived species is discussed and reviewed. This review particularly focuses on the per- and polysulfides which are likely in equilibrium with free H2S and which may be important biological effectors themselves.