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Osali A, Zhiani M, Ghaebi M, Meymanat M, Esmaeilzadeh A. Multidirectional Strategies for Targeted Delivery of Oncolytic Viruses by Tumor Infiltrating Immune Cells. Pharmacol Res 2020; 161:105094. [PMID: 32795509 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.105094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Oncolytic virus (OV) immunotherapy has demonstrated to be a promising approach in cancer treatment due to tumor-specific oncolysis. However, their clinical use so far has been largely limited due to the lack of suitable delivery strategies with high efficacy. Direct 'intratumoral' injection is the way to cross the hurdles of systemic toxicity, while providing local effects. Progress in this field has enabled the development of alternative way using 'systemic' oncolytic virotherapy for producing better results. One major potential roadblock to systemic OV delivery is the low virus persistence in the face of hostile immune system. The delivery challenge is even greater when attempting to target the oncolytic viruses into the entire tumor mass, where not all tumor cells are equally exposed to exactly the same microenvironment. The microenvironment of many tumors is known to be massively infiltrated with various types of leucocytes in both primary and metastatic sites. Interestingly, this intratumoral immune cell heterogeneity exhibits a degree of organized distribution inside the tumor bed as evidenced, for example, by the hypoxic tumor microenviroment where predominantly recruits tumor-associated macrophages. Although in vivo OV delivery seems complicated and challenging, recent results are encouraging for decreasing the limitations of systemically administered oncolytic viruses and an improved efficiency of oncolytic viral therapy in targeting cancerous tissues in vitro. Here, we review the latest developments of carrier cell-based oncolytic virus delivery using tumor-infiltrating immune cells with a focus on the main features of each cellular vehicle.
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Abstract
Tumor infiltrating leukocytes (TILs) are an integral component of the tumor microenvironment and have been found to correlate with prognosis and response to therapy. Methods to enumerate immune subsets such as immunohistochemistry or flow cytometry suffer from limitations in phenotypic markers and can be challenging to practically implement and standardize. An alternative approach is to acquire aggregative high dimensional data from cellular mixtures and to subsequently infer the cellular components computationally. We recently described CIBERSORT, a versatile computational method for quantifying cell fractions from bulk tissue gene expression profiles (GEPs). Combining support vector regression with prior knowledge of expression profiles from purified leukocyte subsets, CIBERSORT can accurately estimate the immune composition of a tumor biopsy. In this chapter, we provide a primer on the CIBERSORT method and illustrate its use for characterizing TILs in tumor samples profiled by microarray or RNA-Seq.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binbin Chen
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Michael S Khodadoust
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University, 875 Blake Wilbur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.,Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Chih Long Liu
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University, 875 Blake Wilbur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Aaron M Newman
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University, 875 Blake Wilbur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA. .,Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Ash A Alizadeh
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University, 875 Blake Wilbur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA. .,Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA. .,Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA. .,Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
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Sawe RT, Mining SK, Ofulla AV, Patel K, Guyah B, Chumba D, Prosperi JR, Kerper M, Shi Z, Sandoval-Cooper M, Taylor K, Badve S, Stack MS, Littlepage LE. Tumor infiltrating leukocyte density is independent of tumor grade and molecular subtype in aggressive breast cancer of Western Kenya. Trop Med Health 2017; 45:19. [PMID: 28794686 PMCID: PMC5543450 DOI: 10.1186/s41182-017-0059-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tumors commonly are infiltrated by leukocytes, or tumor infiltrating leukocytes (TILs). It remains unclear, however, if the density and type of individual TILs has a direct or simply correlative role in promoting poor prognosis in breast cancer patients. Breast cancer in Kenyan women is aggressive with presentation at a young age, with advanced grade (grade III), large tumor size (>2.0 cm), and poor prognosis. We previously observed that the tumors were predominantly estrogen receptor positive (ER+) but also included both a high percentage of triple negative tumors and also increased immune cell infiltration within the tumors. We used breast tumor tissues from each patient to make tissue microarrays that were then stained for leukocyte and myeloid markers including CD4, CD8, CD20, CD25, CD68, and CD163 using immunohistochemical techniques. The immune cell infiltration into the cancer tissue included increased numbers of macrophages (CD68+), helper T cells (CD4+), and CD25+ lymphocytes compared to benign tissue. Results This study characterized the grade, molecular subtypes, and proliferation index of these tumors and determined if TIL density was enriched across any of these factors. We analyzed 49 malignant patient tissue samples for this study. The patient population had a mean age of 51.9 years. The tumors analyzed were heterogeneous by grade: grade I (6%), grade II (47%), and grade III (39%). Most patients presented with large tumors (>2.0 cm) (69%). We classified the tumors into molecular subtypes based on clinical marker expression. Based on this analysis, the molecular subtype distribution was heterogeneous with luminal B (41%), basal/triple negative (TN) (37%), luminal A (14%) and HER2 (8%) breast cancer subtypes. While the basal/TN subtype had a much higher proliferative index (Ki-67+) than did the other molecular subtypes, we did not see a significant correlation between TIL density and either subtype or tumor grade. Therefore, TIL density is independent of molecular subtype and grade. Conclusion This study identified a Kenyan patient cohort that develops large, high-grade tumors primarily of the luminal B and basal molecular subtypes. After analyzing the TILs within these tumors, we found that immune cell infiltration of these tumors correlated with increased proliferation but not grade or molecular subtype. Future research is required to determine if the aberrant recruitment of TILs to tumors contributes to cancer progression and response to cancer treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rispah T Sawe
- Department of Immunology, Moi University, College of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, P.O.Box 4606-30100, Eldoret, Kenya.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health and Community Development, Maseno University, Kisumu, Kenya.,University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN USA.,Harper Cancer Research Institute, South Bend, 46617 IN USA
| | - Simeon K Mining
- Department of Immunology, Moi University, College of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, P.O.Box 4606-30100, Eldoret, Kenya
| | - Ayub V Ofulla
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health and Community Development, Maseno University, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Kirtika Patel
- Department of Immunology, Moi University, College of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, P.O.Box 4606-30100, Eldoret, Kenya
| | - Bernard Guyah
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health and Community Development, Maseno University, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - David Chumba
- Department of Immunology, Moi University, College of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, P.O.Box 4606-30100, Eldoret, Kenya
| | - Jenifer R Prosperi
- University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN USA.,Harper Cancer Research Institute, South Bend, 46617 IN USA.,Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA.,Indiana University School of Medicine - South Bend, South Bend, IN USA
| | - Maggie Kerper
- University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN USA.,Harper Cancer Research Institute, South Bend, 46617 IN USA
| | - Zonggao Shi
- University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN USA.,Harper Cancer Research Institute, South Bend, 46617 IN USA
| | - Mayra Sandoval-Cooper
- University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN USA.,Harper Cancer Research Institute, South Bend, 46617 IN USA
| | - Katherine Taylor
- University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN USA.,Eck Institute for Global Health, Notre Dame, IN USA
| | - Sunil Badve
- Harper Cancer Research Institute, South Bend, 46617 IN USA.,Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
| | - M Sharon Stack
- University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN USA.,Harper Cancer Research Institute, South Bend, 46617 IN USA
| | - Laurie E Littlepage
- University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN USA.,Harper Cancer Research Institute, South Bend, 46617 IN USA
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