Assessing and improving the veracity of international trade in captive-bred animals

Captive breeding is often seen as a solution to sustainably increasing the supply of individuals in the wildlife trade. To be an effective conservation measure this requires robust systems to verify the authenticity of captive-bred species. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) monitors the international trade in Listed species-which for many taxa is dominated by captive-bred individuals-using the Review of Captive Trade (RCT) process. A key question is how best to identify laundered or inauthentic captive-bred trade and how has this changed over time and space. We develop targeted assessments based on multiple RCT criteria to identify probable instances of laundering and misuse of source and purpose codes in international trade records, and apply this to 39,167 records of captive trade from 2000 to 2020 spanning 53,674,762 individuals. We find a very low proportion of trade volume (1.8%, 37,835 individuals) misreported as originating from non-existent, registered Appendix I-breeding facilities, and low instances of exporter-reported captive trade being recorded by importers as wild-sourced (<4%) or ranched (1%). We also find that <2% of species-year-exporter records have abrupt shifts from wild to captive sources, potentially indicating laundering. Conversely, we find high incidences of exporter- and importer-reported trade differing in whether the trade was commercial or not - a phenomenon we attribute to differing definitions, not illegal activity. Our results indicate a low incidence of concerning international trade being reported, but we suggest this likely stems from reporting requirements that limit our assessments. We highlight additional trade data that, if embedded into Party's annual reports, would vastly improve inferential potential, greatly increasing the number of records (Appendix II and III species) that could be verified with minimal effort for management authorities.

Limiting the spillover of zoonotic pathogens from traditional food markets in developing countries and a new market design for risk-proofing

Traditional food markets are age-old systems that primarily serve the food supply needs of society's less affluent sectors, often operating with minimal infrastructure. These markets are prevalent in low and middle-income countries. However, their hygienic conditions are frequently suboptimal, potentially fostering the emergence and spread of presumptive zoonotic diseases. The recent emergence of zoonotic or potentially zoonotic diseases and their possible links to traditional food markets underscore the need for focused attention on this overlooked issue. The socioeconomic characteristics of traditional food markets reveal that despite the risk of zoonotic pathogen spread, these markets play a crucial role for large segments of the population. These individuals rely on such markets for their livelihood, food, and nutrition. Therefore, a comprehensive set of measures addressing various aspects of traditional food markets is necessary to manage and mitigate the risks of potential zoonotic disease emergence. In this article, we explore various facets of traditional food markets, paying special attention to the risks of zoonotic diseases that urgently require stakeholder attention. We also propose a new market design to prevent the risk of zoonotic spillover and advocate for the development of a Market Hygiene Index for these markets.

The impact of sanctuary visits on children's knowledge and attitudes toward primate welfare and conservation

Primate sanctuaries provide a solution for the increasing number of primates being taken from their home countries to support the demands of the illegal pet trade. To help end the primate trade and raise awareness about the risks this trade poses to delicate ecosystems, sanctuaries are increasingly developing conservation education programs. Education and raising awareness must be one of the primary roles of primate sanctuaries. However, there are few evaluations of the impacts of conservation education programs for school children published in scientific literature. To address this gap, we conducted an evaluation of educator-led visits of school children at Fundació Mona, a primate sanctuary located in Catalunya, Spain. Questionnaires for an experimental and control group were conducted with 3,205 school children, ages 8 to 18 from 83 different schools, to evaluate changes in their attitudes and knowledge of primate welfare and conservation. We found that Fundació Mona's program of environmental activities had a positive impact on children, both female and male students, in terms of attitudes and knowledge of primate welfare and conservation. Although female students gave better responses regarding welfare and conservation, all children showed gains in pro-conservation responses. This study demonstrates that environmental education activities focused on children can help shape a change in knowledge and attitudes toward primate welfare and conservation. Educator-led visits of school children to primate sanctuaries such as Fundació Mona can also serve to amplify biodiversity conservation messages among children and their families. We encourage primate sanctuaries to promote empirical studies of attitudes and knowledge of primate welfare and conservation and to conduct systematical evaluations to strengthen their educational activities.

Perceptions of COVID-19 origins and China's wildlife policy reforms

Given the link between perceptions of zoonotic risk and support for regulations such as wildlife consumption bans, debates regarding the origins of COVID-19 are likely to have conservation implications. Specifically, alternative hypotheses that cast doubt on COVID-19's zoonotic origins could potentially lessen momentum for China's wildlife policy reforms and their associated conservation impacts. To better understand the impact of COVID-19 origin debates on China's wildlife policies, we conducted a 974-respondent survey across mainland China, supplemented by policy and media reviews. We examined perceptions of three facets of COVID-19 origins: geographic location, source (e.g., wildlife farm, wet market, etc.), and specific wildlife species as transmitters. Our findings reveal that 64.6 % of respondents believed COVID-19 originated in the United States or Europe, not in China. Further, compared to the baseline group of respondents who selected China as the origin country, respondents who selected the United States or Europe as the origin had a greater likelihood of selecting laboratories/research and imported frozen foods as likely sources, while these respondents had a lower likelihood of selecting wild animals in a wet market or natural causes as likely sources. Despite such varied beliefs regarding COVID-19 origins, support for wildlife policy reforms was strong: 89.5 % of respondents who previously consumed wildlife self-indicated reduced consumption after the pandemic and 70.5 % of respondents supported banning the trade of all wildlife species. Moreover, those respondents who selected wild animals in a wet market as a likely source of COVID-19 had a greater likelihood of supporting a trade ban on all wild-caught wildlife and all farmed wildlife. Our results indicate that, although investigation of COVID-19's origins is on-going and politicized, there is clear support for wildlife reforms in China that can promote conservation outcomes.

Mitigating elasmobranch fin trade: A market analysis for made-to-measure interventions

The unsustainable trade in elasmobranch products, particularly fins, contributes to the decline of elasmobranch populations worldwide. Designing and implementing context-appropriate solutions to mitigate unsustainable trade requires a thorough analysis of markets. Here we assess the market component of the elasmobranch fin trade in the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh, using a framework designed to analyse wildlife markets. Using a mixed-method approach, we characterised the market to identify the components contributing to unsustainable practices. By-catch retention levels were high leading to the development of a solid market. Trade on fins was prevalent due to a high price, lack of awareness, actors' limited ability to adhere to regulations, and no strategies and incentives to limit fishing mortality. An imbalanced power and financial structure between actors were revealed, with some actors accessing unequal benefits from the market. Impediments for adopting conservation measures by low-access actors (e.g., fishers) with limited decision-making power or resources were evident. We also identified challenges to enforcement primarily due to limited reporting and issues identifying species and products. Fishers noted several socio-ecological, technical, and enforcement issues (e.g., policing instead of meaningful monitoring, punitive measures without facilitating compliance), that will require adequate time and resources to change practices. Lack of opportunities and information to adhere to regulations and increased enforcement has led to conflicts, non-compliance and unwillingness to report catches. The study has significantly strengthened the current understanding of Bangladesh's complex elasmobranch product market while highlighting critical knowledge gaps that must be addressed to inform and improve management decisions. Based on the findings, we recommend targeted actions to respond to the current market for mitigating elasmobranch product trade and moving towards establishing sustainable and ethical trade. Our work has both regional and global significance, given the role of the Bay of Bengal nations in the worldwide elasmobranch product market.

Spirometra infection in a captive Samar cobra (Naja samarensis) in the United States: An imported case?

We report a case of Spirometra infection in a Samar cobra (Naja samarensis) imported from the Philippines, belonging to a zoological collection in the southern United States. Under a poor post-surgical prognosis, the snake was euthanized, and at necropsy plerocercoids of a Diphyllobotriidea were found in its subcutaneous tissues and musculature. Molecular and phylogenetic analyses of the complete cytochrome oxidase c subunit I (cox1) gene of the mitochondrial DNA confirmed that the isolate belonged to the genus Spirometra and was closely related to Spirometra mansoni isolates from Asian countries (bootstrap support = 99.4%). Considering the origin and clinical history and handling of the animal, the snake probably arrived infected in America. We suggest the inclusion of diagnostic imaging in the investigation of sparganosis in research and disease surveillance protocols applied in the pre- and post-quarantine period to asymptomatic animals imported from endemic areas.

Insights into the primate trade into the European Union and the United Kingdom

Illegal and/or unsustainable trade is a major obstacle to effective primate conservation. The wildlife trade in the European Union (EU) and the United Kingdom (UK) is significant, but for many species, such as primates, the trade is poorly understood and sparsely reported. All EU countries are Party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES); all primates are listed on Appendix I or II of CITES and are included on Annex A or B of Regulation (EC) No 338/97. We here combine data from several databases (CITES, UN Comtrade, TRAFFIC WiTIS) and seizure reports, to provide a narrative of the trade in primates into and within Europe. The legal import of live primates (2002-2021) amounted to 218,000-238,000 individuals (valued at US$ 869 million), with France, the UK, and Spain as the main importers and Mauritius, Vietnam, and China as the main exporters. Over 21,000 primate parts (trophies, skulls, bodies) were imported mainly from African countries, and UN Comtrade data suggests that ~ 600 tonnes of primate meat was imported mainly from Asia. The vast majority of live primates are either captive-born or captive-bred, and this proportion has increased over time. Reports of the illegal primate trade are far from complete, but the illegal trade of specific species or primate meat can have negative impacts of wild populations of already imperiled species. Stronger policies and more effective enforcement in consumer countries, such as the EU, would also aid in, and garner support for, better protecting primates in primate range states.

Understanding Factors that Shape Exposure to Zoonotic and Food-Borne Diseases Across Wild Meat Trade Chains

The rise of zoonotic disease-related public health crises has sparked calls for policy action, including calls to close wildlife markets. Yet, these calls often reflect limited understanding of where, precisely, exposure to risk occurs along wildlife and wild meat trade chains. They also threaten to negatively impact food security and livelihoods. From a public health perspective, it is important to understand the practices that shape food safety all along the trade chain, resulting in meat that is either safe to eat or managed as a potential vector of pathogens. This article uses ethnographic methods to examine the steps that lead a wild animal from the forest to the plate of an urban consumer in Yangambi and Kisangani in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Focusing on hunters, village-level consumers, transporters, market traders and urban consumers, we highlight specific practices that expose different actors involved in the trade chain to wild meat related health risks, including exposure to food borne illnesses from contaminated meat and zoonotic pathogens through direct contact with wild animals, and the local practices in place to reduce the same. We discuss interventions that could help prevent and mitigate zoonotic and food borne disease risks associated with wild meat trade chains.

Traditional Khmer Medicine and its role in wildlife use in modern-day Cambodia

Individuals across Cambodia depend on the use of natural products in Traditional Khmer Medicine (TKM), a traditional medicine system in Cambodia that has been practiced for hundreds of years. Cambodia is rich in fauna and flora species, many of which have been, and continue to be, traded domestically for traditional medicine use. Combined with other known exploitative practices, such as snaring for wild meat consumption and international trade in wildlife, domestic trade in wildlife medicine threatens populations of regional conservation importance. Here, we provide an updated understanding about how TKM is practiced in modern times; how TKM practices are transmitted and adapted; and roles of wildlife part remedies in TKM historically and presently. We conducted semi-structured interviews with TKM practitioners in Stung Treng, Mondulkiri Province, and at the National Center for Traditional Medicine in Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia. TKM is generally practiced in the private sector and is mostly informal, without enrollment in any academic training. TKM practitioner roles commonly involve collecting, preparing, selling, and advising on medicine, rather than providing direct treatment. Over half of the interviewed TKM practitioners (57.6%) were still prescribing wildlife parts as medicine over the past 5 years, with 28 species of wild animals reported. Lorises and porcupine were the wildlife products cited as being in highest demand in TKM, primarily prescribed for women's illnesses such as post-partum fatigue (Toas and Sawsaye kchey). However, the supply of wildlife products sourced from the wild was reported to have dropped in the 5 years prior to the survey, which represents an opportunity to reduce prescription of threatened wildlife. We suggest that our results be used to inform tailored demand reduction interventions designed to encourage greater reliance on biomedicine and non-threatened plants, particularly in rural areas where use of biomedicine may still be limited.

Impacts of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic on the global demand for exotic pets: An expert elicitation approach

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has caused immense social and economic costs worldwide. Most experts endorse the view that the virus has a zoonotic origin with the final spillover being associated with wildlife trade. Besides human consumption, wild animals are also extensively traded as pets. Information on zoonotic diseases has been reported to reduce consumer demand for exotic pets. We conducted a global survey and collected 162 responses from international experts on exotic pet trade (traders, academics, NGOs, enforcement entities) to understand how the legal and illegal trade of exotic pets is expected to be affected by the ongoing coronavirus pandemic. Our results suggest that legal purchase of exotic pets is perceived as decreasing during the first pandemic wave due to: lower availability of animals for trade, suppliers' inability to reach consumers and social distancing measures. The general perception is that in the future (i.e., next five years), both demand and supply of legally traded exotic pets are expected to either remain unchanged or decrease only temporarily. The consumer demand for illegal exotic pets is also expected to remain unchanged following the outbreak. The top two challenges reported by respondents, when considering the consequences of the pandemic for the exotic pet trade, are inadequate enforcement of national regulations and increased illegal trade. Our results suggest that the negative consequences of a zoonotic outbreak may not dissuade consumers of exotic pets. Worldwide, the transit/storing conditions and lack of health screenings of traded live animals are conducive to spreading diseases. Consumer demand is a key driver of trade, and enforcement of trade regulations will remain challenging, unless factors driving consumer demand are adequately incorporated in problem-solving frameworks. We emphasize the complexity of trade dynamics and the need to go beyond bans on wildlife trade. Stronger law enforcement, implemented along with initiatives dissuading consumption of wild exotic pets, are essential to sustainably satisfy the market demand.

Low pangolin consumption in Hong Kong pre- and post- the COVID-19 outbreak: Conservation and health concerns both contribute to people's attitudes

Pangolins have recently received significant media attention globally as the trade for their scales and meat is driving many species closer to extinction. As a result of this, there have been increased legal regulations placed on pangolin trade in recent years. The suggestion that pangolins may have been involved in the transmission of COVID-19 further brought the issues of pangolin consumption to the fore in 2020. However, we have little understanding of the attitudes of the general public towards pangolin consumption pre- or post the outbreak of COVID-19. We conducted surveys in Hong Kong, a critical transit hub in the trafficking routes for pangolins, in 2015 (n = 1037) and 2020 (n = 1028) to determine general attitudes towards pangolin consumption in the city, and whether these attitudes changed since the onset of COVID-19. We found low reported rates of pangolin consumption (< 1% of respondents) in both surveys, and most of the respondents who professed to eating pangolins were aged above 50. Perceptions of how trends in pangolin consumption are changing were consistent between 2015 and 2020, with 55% of the public in 2015 and 57% in 2020 believing that consumption has declined over time. In 2020, respondents cited conservation (endangered status of pangolins) and health concerns (risk of disease transmission) as the two primary reasons (> 50%) for declining attitudes toward consumption. Overall, COVID-19 does not, specifically, appear to be associated with changed perceptions of pangolin consumption in Hong Kong: > 75% of respondents stated that there is no relationship between pangolins and COVID-19, or were unsure about any such connection. Only 1% mentioned an awareness of the illegality of pangolin consumption as a reason for not consuming them. As such, our results challenge simple narratives regarding the impact of COVID-19 on pangolin consumption. We suggest that future demand reduction efforts could emphasize the conservation impact and health risks of consuming pangolins, and specifically focus on the older generations. As pangolins continue to be trafficked and threatened with extinction, further research into the perceptions and attitudes of consumers of these products is needed to inform targeted and effective interventions.

Are Fish Wild?

As the global biodiversity crisis continues, it is important to examine the legislative protection that is in place for species around the world. Such legislation not only includes environmental or wildlife law, but also trade law, such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which gets transposed into national legislation. This commentary analyses legislative definitions of wildlife, whether or not that includes fish, which has implications for fish welfare, use of fish for food security, and biodiversity conservation when fish, or other wildlife, are excluded. Through a legislative content analysis of the 183 parties' legislation of CITES, we explore whether fish are afforded the same protections as other species by being included in legal definitions of wildlife. We found that while a majority of CITES parties' legislation appear to define fish as wildlife, there are a number of instances where this is unclear or not the case, and this could have significant ramifications for the welfare of non-human animals, their use, and conservation.

No need to beat around the bushmeat-The role of wildlife trade and conservation initiatives in the emergence of zoonotic diseases

Wildlife species constitute a vast and uncharted reservoir of zoonotic pathogens that can pose a severe threat to global human health. Zoonoses have become increasingly impactful over the past decades, and the expanding trade in wildlife is unarguably among the most significant risk factors for their emergence. Despite several warnings from the academic community about the spillover risks associated with wildlife trade, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic underlines that current policies on the wildlife industry are deficient. Conservation initiatives, rather than practices that attempt to eradicate zoonotic pathogens or the wild species that harbour them, could play a vital role in preventing the emergence of life-threatening zoonoses. This review explores how wildlife conservation initiatives could effectively reduce the risk of new zoonotic diseases emerging from the wildlife trade by integrating existing literature on zoonotic diseases and risk factors associated with wildlife trade. Conservation should mainly aim at reducing human-wildlife interactions in the wildlife trade by protecting wildlife habitats and providing local communities with alternative protein sources. In addition, conservation should focus on regulating the legal wildlife trade and education about disease transfer and safer hunting and butchering methods. By uniting efforts for wildlife protection and universal concern for preventing zoonotic epidemics, conservation initiatives have the potential to safeguard both biodiversity, animal welfare, and global human health security.

A tool for rapid assessment of wildlife markets in the Asia-Pacific Region for risk of future zoonotic disease outbreaks

Decades of warnings that the trade and consumption of wildlife could result in serious zoonotic pandemics have gone largely unheeded. Now the world is ravaged by COVID-19, with tremendous loss of life, economic and societal disruption, and dire predictions of more destructive and frequent pandemics. There are now calls to tightly regulate and even enact complete wildlife trade bans, while others call for more nuanced approaches since many rural communities rely on wildlife for sustenance. Given pressures from political and societal drivers and resource limitations to enforcing bans, increased regulation is a more likely outcome rather than broad bans. But imposition of tight regulations will require monitoring and assessing trade situations for zoonotic risks. We present a tool for relevant stakeholders, including government authorities in the public health and wildlife sectors, to assess wildlife trade situations for risks of potentially serious zoonoses in order to inform policies to tightly regulate and control the trade, much of which is illegal in most countries. The tool is based on available knowledge of different wildlife taxa traded in the Asia-Pacific Region and known to carry highly virulent and transmissible viruses combined with relative risks associated with different broad categories of market types and trade chains.

Preservative chemicals as a new health risk related to traditional medicine markets in western Africa

Health risks associated to the use of tropical wildlife have so far been envisioned through the lens of zoonotic pathogens spread by the bushmeat trade, putting aside the equally vibrant network of traditional medicine markets (TMMs). We collected information on the preservative techniques used for animal body parts from TMMs in Benin through a semi-structured questionnaire addressed to 45 sellers. We show that a recent shift from traditional preservative techniques using harmless treatments towards modern techniques –involving the recurrent use of hazardous chemicals (such as Sniper)– is likely to pose a serious health risk to practitioners and consumers of animal parts from TMMs in Benin. We conclude that the non-regulation of the TMM activities represents a critical risk to both biodiversity conservation and human health in western Africa.

Using internet search data to understand information seeking behavior for health and conservation topics during the COVID-19 pandemic

Emerging zoonotic diseases, such as COVID-19, exist at the intersection of human health and the environment. Public interest and support are required to maximize the effectiveness of policies to combat the current pandemic and prevent future outbreaks of zoonoses. Here, we use internet search data from the United States to investigate changes in public information seeking about topics at the intersection of health and the environment during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using breakpoint detection methods, we identify sharp increases in interest for 'wildlife trade', 'bats', and 'pangolins' in the early stages of the pandemic (on Jan. 12, Jan. 19, and Jan. 26, 2020, respectively). Network analyses also revealed increasing connectivity between terms related to human health and the environment, as well as the emergence of novel search terms pointing to a greater interest in wildlife trade and consumption. During the pandemic, the network connectivity between coronavirus keywords and conservation keywords increased, which we measured using the number of unique connections (edge connectivity, k' (G)) and the number of simple paths (Sp) between keywords. Both measures of network connectivity increased between 'coronavirus' and 'bats' or 'pangolins' (Δk' (G) = 1, ΔSp = 37), and between 'coronavirus' and 'conservation' (Δk' (G) = 1, ΔSp = 160). These findings suggest that policy and outreach efforts aimed at engaging public interest in intersectional approaches to pandemic prevention (eg: One Health, Planetary Health), may be able to take advantage of increases in public information seeking following catalyzing events during the pandemic. Further monitoring is needed to determine if these changes persist over time.

The future of sustainability in the context of COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic is a global crisis emanating both from a virus (SARS-CoV-2) and from the drastic actions to contain it. Here, we reflect on the immediate responses of most world powers amid the pandemic chaos: totalitarian surveillance and nationalist isolation. Drawing on published literature, we consider measures such as wildlife-use bans, lockdowns and travel restrictions, along with their reverberations for people, economies and the planet. Our synthesis highlights significant shortfalls of applying command-and-control tactics in emergencies. For one, heavy-handed bans risk enormous unintended consequences and tend to fail if they lack legitimacy or clash with people's values. Furthermore, reactive and myopic strategies typically view the pandemic as a stand-alone crisis, rather than unravelling the complex interplay of nature-society interactions through which zoonotic diseases originate. A return to adaptive management approaches that recognise root causes and foster socio-ecological resilience will be essential to improve human and planetary health and mitigate future pandemics.

The socioeconomic and environmental drivers of the COVID-19 pandemic: A review

In recent decades, there has been an intensification of the socioeconomic and environmental drivers of pandemics, including ecosystem conversion, meat consumption, urbanization, and connectivity among cities and countries. This paper reviews how these four systemic drivers help explain the dynamics of the COVID-19 pandemic and other recent emerging infectious diseases, and the policies that can be adopted to mitigate their risks. Land-use change and meat consumption increase the likelihood of pathogen spillover from animals to people. The risk that such zoonotic outbreaks will then spread to become pandemics is magnified by growing urban populations and the networks of trade and travel within and among countries. Zoonotic spillover can be mitigated through habitat protection and restrictions on the wildlife trade. Containing infectious disease spread requires a high degree of coordination among institutions across geographic jurisdictions and economic sectors, all backed by international investment and cooperation.

Assessing Ecological and Social Dimensions of Success in a Community-based Sustainable Harvest Program

Community-based conservation and resource management (CBCRM) programs often incorporate the dual goals of poverty alleviation and conservation. However, robust assessments of CBCRM program outcomes are relatively scarce. This study uses a multidisciplinary, systems approach to assess the ecological and social dimensions of success of an internationally acclaimed CBCRM program. This program, located in one of the largest protected areas in the Peruvian Amazon (Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve), strives for the sustainable harvest and trade of a turtle species (Podocnemis unifilis). We used mixed methods analysis, including interviews and population viability modeling, to understand three elements: how local perceptions of changes in the managed population compare to changes inferred by ecological analyses, the indicators stakeholders use to measure success, and the barriers to long-term program success and social-ecological system sustainability. We find that stakeholders perceive a growth trend in the managed turtle population, but this perception may diverge from our ecological understanding of the system under current management. Population viability analyses with a 1:1 sex ratio suggested population size will decline under two of three management scenarios (different degrees of harvest). Yet this and similar studies are plagued by a lack of species- and site-specific population parameters that could improve understanding of the system. Significant vulnerabilities exist for system sustainability, notably the recent decrease in foreign demand for the traded resource. Identifying a sustainable species-specific harvest rate, developing locally-grounded ecological and social indicators, and focusing on data-driven adaptive management will facilitate the identification of key leverage points for future management interventions.

Nature and COVID-19: The pandemic, the environment, and the way ahead

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought profound social, political, economic, and environmental challenges to the world. The virus may have emerged from wildlife reservoirs linked to environmental disruption, was transmitted to humans via the wildlife trade, and its spread was facilitated by economic globalization. The pandemic arrived at a time when wildfires, high temperatures, floods, and storms amplified human suffering. These challenges call for a powerful response to COVID-19 that addresses social and economic development, climate change, and biodiversity together, offering an opportunity to bring transformational change to the structure and functioning of the global economy. This biodefense can include a "One Health" approach in all relevant sectors; a greener approach to agriculture that minimizes greenhouse gas emissions and leads to healthier diets; sustainable forms of energy; more effective international environmental agreements; post-COVID development that is equitable and sustainable; and nature-compatible international trade. Restoring and enhancing protected areas as part of devoting 50% of the planet's land to environmentally sound management that conserves biodiversity would also support adaptation to climate change and limit human contact with zoonotic pathogens. The essential links between human health and well-being, biodiversity, and climate change could inspire a new generation of innovators to provide green solutions to enable humans to live in a healthy balance with nature leading to a long-term resilient future.

Ethnozoological and commercial drivers of the pangolin trade in Benin

BACKGROUND

Pangolins are trafficked in unsustainable volumes to feed both local and global trade networks for their meat and the medicinal properties of their derivatives, including scales. We focus on a West African country (Benin) to assess the medicinal and spiritual values of pangolins among different ethnic groups and identify the cohort of buyers involved in the pangolin trade and related economic values along the chain, notably from local diasporas.

METHODS

We organised 54 focus groups in villages surrounding occurrence habitats of pangolins across Benin and conducted 35 individual interviews with vendors from five major traditional medicine markets (TMMs). Our questionnaire addressed the different uses of pangolins, the commercial value of pangolin items, the categories of clients and the related selling prices.

RESULTS

Pangolin meat was strictly consumed as food. Scales, head, bones, tongue, blood, heart and xiphisternum were the items used by local communities as part of medicinal (65% of the focus groups) and spiritual (37%) practices. Scales were the most frequently used item (use value index = 1.56). A total of 42 medicinal and spiritual uses, covering 15 International Classification of Diseases (ICD) categories, were recorded among ethnic groups. The ICD and spiritual categories-based analyses of similarity showed a partial overlapping of ethnozoological knowledge across Benin, although knowledge was significantly influenced by ethnicity and geographic location. The pricing of pangolins both varied with the category of stakeholders (local communities vs. stakeholders of TMMs) and clients (local and West African clients vs. Chinese community) and the type of items sold. The Chinese community was reported to only buy pangolins alive, and average selling prices were 3-8 times higher than those to West African clients.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results confirm that pangolins in Africa are valuable and versatile resources for consumption and medicinal / spiritual practices. The pangolin trade in Benin is based on an endogenous and complex network of actors that now appears influenced by the specific, high-valued demand from the Chinese diaspora. Further investigations are required to assess the growing impact of the Chinese demand on the African wildlife trade.

Global dataset for seized and non-intercepted illegal cheetah trade (Acinonyx jubatus) 2010-2019

Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) are a keystone predator of savanna systems in Africa, yet their populations have dramatically declined due to pressures such as human-wildlife conflict, loss of habitat, and most notably the illegal trade in live cheetah cubs as pets. We provide the most extensive dataset relevant to seized and non-intercepted illegal trade in live cheetahs and cheetah parts for the decade 2010-2019, spanning over 300 sources and 56 countries in Africa, the Middle East, Asia, Europe, Oceania and North America. It includes 1,884 individual incidents involving at least 4,000 cheetahs or cheetah parts or products likely or confirmed to breach national laws or CITES regulations. While the covert nature of illegal trade of any kind makes it extremely difficult to capture its true volume, we believe that the information contained in this dataset demonstrates the need for a more in-depth look into illegal cheetah trade, including sustainability assessments with emphasis in regions where cheetah populations are small and widely exploited, such as the Horn of Africa, as this dataset suggests. Ultimately, such actions could lead to improved enforcement and legal frameworks, and provide a guide for CITES actions involving international cooperation and demand reduction efforts.

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice Regarding Zoonotic Risk in Wildlife Trade, Southern China

Current wildlife trade practices in China lead to significant interactions between humans and animals and drive the emergence of zoonotic diseases. The at-risk behaviors, knowledge, and attitudes that influence health-related behaviors in relation to animal contact and safety measures in the trade remain poorly understood. A self-administered questionnaire survey was conducted among 947 adult Internet users in three provinces in southern China to assess knowledge, perceived disease risks, at-risk behaviors, and the association of these factors with other demographic factors among the target population. Few of the participants possessed sufficient knowledge of zoonotic diseases. Although most participants were opposed to the use of wild animal resources, many reported keeping wild animals as pets (30.7%) and eating wild animals (30.5%). The majority of participants (76.3%) believed the disease transmission via wildlife trade, but few connected contact with animals to sickness (18.5%) and only slightly more than half sought post-exposure treatment (54.4%). These results reveal low levels of knowledge and perceived risk regarding disease emergence from the animal-human interactions in wildlife trade and uncover the gaps in knowledge and attitudes as key challenges to the development of health behavior change interventions pertaining to wildlife trade.

Economics, life history and international trade data for seven turtle species in Indonesian and Malaysian farms

We collected data on the trade of seven turtle and tortoise species endemic to Indonesia and Malaysia (Amyda cartilaginea, Batagur borneoensis, Cuora amboinensis, Carettochelys insculpta, Heosemys annandalii, Heosemys grandis, and Heosemys spinosa). The data on those species included: operations costs of three breeding farms and one export facility; species life-history traits; and species international legal trade and confiscation data. We collected data for the facilities (one in Malaysia and three in Indonesia) using site visits and a semi-structured questionnaire. We conducted a literature review to compile relevant information on species’ life-history traits to estimate breeding viability. We downloaded species-specific data on international trade from the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Trade Database for the exporting countries (Malaysia and Indonesia) for 2000–2015. We compared legal trade with confiscation data obtained from CITES. The data in this article can provide insights into the operations of turtle breeding farms in Southeast Asia. These data can be used as a reference for the inspection of breeding farms and for legislative bodies to determine whether captive breeding for select turtle species is feasible.

Optimisation and application of a forensic microsatellite panel to combat Greater-one horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) poaching in India

The Greater one-horned (GoH) rhinoceros is one of the most charismatic endemic megaherbivores of the Indian subcontinent. Threatened by poaching, habitat loss and disease, the species is found only in small areas of its historical distribution. Increasing demands for rhino horns in chinese traditional medicine has put the existing population under continuing threat, and large profits and low conviction rates make poaching difficult to contain. DNA forensics such as the RhoDIS-Africa program has helped in combating illegal rhino horn trade, but the approach is yet to be optimised for Indian GoH rhinoceros. Here we followed the International Society for Forensic Genetics (ISFG) guidelines to establish a 14 dinucleotide microsatellite panel for Indian GoH rhinoceros DNA profiling. Selected from a large initial pool (n = 34), the microsatellite markers showed high polymorphism, stable peak characteristics, consistent allele calls and produced precise, reproducible genotypes from different types of rhino samples. The panel also showed low genotyping error and produced high statistical power during individual identification (P_IDsibs value of 1.2*10^-4). As part of the official RhoDIS-India program, we used this panel to match poached rhino carcass with seized contraband as scientific evidence in court procedure. This program now moves to generate detailed allele-frequency maps of all GoH rhinoceros populations in India and Nepal for development of a genetic database and identification of poaching hotspots and trade routes across the subcontinent and beyond.

Illegal online pet trade in venomous snakes and the occurrence of snakebites in Brazil

Greater access to the Internet has boosted the online pet trade and especially enabled the trade in niche-targeted groups, such as venomous species. Despite their fearsome reputation, an array of venomous animals, such as snakes, spiders and scorpions arise interest among pet hobbyists, which exposes owners, sellers, and others involved in their transport and maintenance to potentially serious accidents by envenomation. To assess the potential risk to human health posed by the trade and ownership of venomous pet snakes, we examined social media posts trading or portraying native and exotic venomous species as pets (Facebook™ and YouTube™) and official seizures in Brazil between 2015 and 2020. In addition, we recorded all venomous snakebite events occurring in the country during the same period from the Brazilian Ministry of Health database. We compiled 114,931 venomous snakebite events resulting in over 600 human deaths. Bothrops spp. and Crotalus spp. were responsible for 86% and 10% of these events. We recorded 241 individual venomous snakes kept as pets of at least 16 species (seven native and nine non-native). The taxa with higher numbers of snakebites were also those most often kept as pets. Venomous pet snakes were sold at low prices, US$ 71.70 ± 18.44 on average. Our findings highlight a dangerous market, given the similarity of taxa raised as pets and those causing snakebites, combined with low availability of anti-venom for exotic species in Brazil. Additionally, several of the venomous pet snakes recorded are invasive species in many countries. Trade in venomous snakes is prohibited in Brazil, but the law is not well-enforced. To curb this illegal market and discourage consumer demand, we suggest that tougher penalties for sellers and owners should be considered, along with the development of awareness campaigns on the consequences of the snakebite injuries and the lack of antivenoms.

Canada and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): Lessons Learned on Implementation and Compliance

Unsustainable and illegal wildlife trade are contributing to the unprecedented levels of biodiversity loss and possible extinction of one million species. Law enforcement and the criminal justice system have a role to play in helping to regulate and monitor such trade. The main international instrument to regulate wildlife trade is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This mixed methods study researched the lessons learned and best practice in regards to implementation of and compliance with CITES. As part of the study, three countries were identified as case studies and Canada was selected as one of these. Lessons can also be learned from Canada's Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act, which is cumbersome to update when species protections change within CITES. Canada has several elements of good practice, such as the remit, effectiveness and relationships of the three CITES authorities located within Environment and Climate Change Canada, the public health approach to some wildlife imports, and the protection of native CITES species. CITES needs to be improved to further protect endangered species and lessons from Canada and other countries can contribute to this improvement.

Illegal wildlife trade in local markets of Feuang and Mad districts of Vientiane Province, Lao People's Democratic Republic

The Lao People's Democratic Republic has emerged as a hub for illegal flora and fauna trade, more specifically, species in protected categories. However, numerous local species are traded and given less consideration despite their importance. Hence, we observed the local markets in the Feuang and Mad districts of Vientiane Province in summer and winter seasons to determine the species for trade, as well as their volume and conservation status. Altogether, 602 specimens corresponding to 23 genera and 22 species were identified. Among them, the highest number of species was mammals, followed by birds, reptiles, amphibians, and insects. Six species are listed in threatened categories according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and nine under Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species categories. The species in trade varied between seasons, as winter was the main poaching season for mammals and birds and summer was for amphibians, reptiles, and insects. This study revealed that food, traditional medicine, and curio production were the main reasons for wildlife trade. The lack of strong regulations, monitoring and law enforcement, and poverty are the major reasons for wildlife trade. Therefore, strong law enforcement, creating alternate income sources, and participatory conservation programs are required to effectively control wildlife trade in the Lao People's Democratic Republic.

Beyond banning wildlife trade: COVID-19, conservation and development

One of the immediate responses to COVID-19 has been a call to ban wildlife trade given the suspected origin of the pandemic in a Chinese market selling and butchering wild animals. There is clearly an urgent need to tackle wildlife trade that is illegal, unsustainable or carries major risks to human health, biodiversity conservation or meeting acceptable animal welfare standards. However, some of the suggested actions in these calls go far beyond tackling these risks and have the potential to undermine human rights, damage conservation incentives and harm sustainable development. There are a number of reasons for this concerns. First calls for bans on wildlife markets often include calls for bans on wet markets, but the two are not the same thing, and wet markets can be a critical underpinning of informal food systems. Second, wildlife trade generates essential resources for the world's most vulnerable people, contributing to food security for millions of people, particularly in developing countries. Third, wildlife trade bans have conservation risks including driving trade underground, making it even harder to regulate, and encouraging further livestock production. Fourth, in many cases, sustainable wildlife trade can provide key incentives for local people to actively protect species and the habitat they depend on, leading to population recoveries. Most importantly, a singular focus on wildlife trade overlooks the key driver of the emergence of infectious diseases: habitat destruction, largely driven by agricultural expansion and deforestation, and industrial livestock production. We suggest that the COVID-19 crisis provides a unique opportunity for a paradigm shift both in our global food system and also in our approach to conservation. We make specific suggestions as to what this entails, but the overriding principle is that local people must be at the heart of such policy shifts.

Understanding China's wildlife markets: Trade and tradition in an age of pandemic

Environmentalists have long been concerned about the rate at which China is consuming and trading in threatened and endangered wildlife. The recent COVID-19 global pandemic has made wildlife consumption an issue that concerns everyone around the world. Formerly obscure practices like wet markets and commodities like pangolin scales or bear bile have gained international notoriety. Along with that attention has come increasing politicization and ideological polarization. Beyond the global fight against the pandemic, there has been another global struggle over the meaning and origin of the disease, as evidenced by the spread of terms like "Wuhan Flu" and "bat soup." What has become obscured by the news cycle struggling to keep up with the rapid spread of the virus and the political sound and fury surrounding it is any meaningful understanding of China's wildlife consumption and trade. Deeply ingrained in Chinese culture and history, the wildlife trade is not going away anytime soon. Despite a national ban, already wet markets are returning across China. Addressing the wildlife trade in China, we argue, requires first understanding it.

Phylogenomics, biogeography and taxonomic revision of New Guinean pythons (Pythonidae, Leiopython) harvested for international trade

The large and enigmatic New Guinean pythons in the genus Leiopython are harvested from the wild to supply the international trade in pets. Six species are currently recognized (albertisii, biakensis, fredparkeri, huonensis, meridionalis, montanus) but the taxonomy of this group has been controversial. We combined analysis of 421 nuclear loci and complete mitochondrial genomes with morphological data to construct a detailed phylogeny of this group, understand their biogeographic patterns and establish the systematic diversity of this genus. Our molecular genetic data support two major clades, corresponding to L. albertisii and L. fredparkeri, but offer no support for the other four species. Our morphological data also only support two species. We therefore recognize L. albertisii and L. fredparkeri as valid species and place L. biakensis, L. meridionalis, L. huonensis and L. montanus into synonymy. We found that L. albertisii and L. fredparkeri are sympatric in western New Guinea; an atypical pattern compared to other Papuan species complexes in which the distributions of sister taxa are partitioned to the north and south of the island's central mountain range. For the purpose of conservation management, overestimation of species diversity within Leiopython has resulted in the unnecessary allocation of resources that could have been expended elsewhere. We strongly caution against revising the taxonomy of geographically widespread species groups when little or no molecular genetic data and only small morphological samples are available.

No Evidence of Coronaviruses or Other Potentially Zoonotic Viruses in Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica) Entering the Wildlife Trade via Malaysia

The legal and illegal trade in wildlife for food, medicine and other products is a globally significant threat to biodiversity that is also responsible for the emergence of pathogens that threaten human and livestock health and our global economy. Trade in wildlife likely played a role in the origin of COVID-19, and viruses closely related to SARS-CoV-2 have been identified in bats and pangolins, both traded widely. To investigate the possible role of pangolins as a source of potential zoonoses, we collected throat and rectal swabs from 334 Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica) confiscated in Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah between August 2009 and March 2019. Total nucleic acid was extracted for viral molecular screening using conventional PCR protocols used to routinely identify known and novel viruses in extensive prior sampling (> 50,000 mammals). No sample yielded a positive PCR result for any of the targeted viral families-Coronaviridae, Filoviridae, Flaviviridae, Orthomyxoviridae and Paramyxoviridae. In the light of recent reports of coronaviruses including a SARS-CoV-2-related virus in Sunda pangolins in China, the lack of any coronavirus detection in our 'upstream' market chain samples suggests that these detections in 'downstream' animals more plausibly reflect exposure to infected humans, wildlife or other animals within the wildlife trade network. While confirmatory serologic studies are needed, it is likely that Sunda pangolins are incidental hosts of coronaviruses. Our findings further support the importance of ending the trade in wildlife globally.

Wildlife trade shifts from brick-and-mortar markets to virtual marketplaces: A case study of birds of prey trade in Thailand

The shift of wildlife trade from brick-and-mortar markets to virtual online marketplaces is reported using the trade of birds of prey (raptors) in Thailand from 1968 to 2019 as a case study. We analyzed data obtained from physical market survey data for 2,782 individuals from 27 species, with 2,420 individuals reported in early surveys (1968-1988) and 362 individuals reported in later surveys (2003-2015) and online surveys (February 2017 to January 2019). We compared information on asking prices and what species were traded using two comparative approaches to analyze how species composition may have changed over time (physical markets and online platforms; pre-Internet and Internet era). In comparison with the five previous market surveys, we did not find a statistically significant difference between species and availability of species offered for sale when comparing physical bird markets and online markets. In all data sets, biological factors such as wingspan were significant factors in explaining price variation. We conclude that sustained monitoring is needed to make direct comparisons between the trade platforms. With a continued increase of wildlife trade on online platforms, we recommend increased regulation and enforcement of wildlife trade laws.

China's online parrot trade: Generation length and body mass determine sales volume via price

The wildlife trade threatens global biodiversity and animal welfare, where parrots are among the taxa most frequently traded, supplying exotic pets and captive breeders worldwide. Using phylogenetic path analysis, we examine how biological factors interact with price to influence online protected parrot trade volumes in China, using transactions recorded for 46 species (n = 5862 individuals). Trade was greatest in smaller, faster breeding species that commanded a lower price. This price effect followed the economic law of demand, with Relatively Inelastic Demand (−0.758), outweighing indicators of ‘quality’ such as body coloration, and conservation status. We identify two areas of concern: those larger, slower-breeding, rarer species, even though sold at lower numbers, may be at conservation risk if harvested from the wild. In contrast, the sheer numbers (over 90% of the individuals were under median generation length, body mass and/or price) and ready availability of smaller and more common species comprises a substantial overall animal welfare issue, given that the capture, importation, or captive breeding of many parrot species in China is illegal and thus unregulated. Our investigation highlights the importance of properly understanding the internal relations among drivers of wildlife trade to inform appropriate management.

Did the movie Finding Dory increase demand for blue tang fish?

Representations of wildlife in television and films have long been hypothesized to shape human-wildlife interactions. A recent example is Pixar's film Finding Dory, which featured a blue tang fish (Paracanthurus hepatus) as the main character and was widely reported in the popular press to have increased the number of such fish in the pet trade. We use Bayesian posterior predictive counterfactual models to evaluate the movie's effect on three metrics of societal behaviour. Although there was an increase in global online searches for the blue tang 2-3 weeks after the movie, we find no substantial evidence for an increase in imports of blue tang fish into the US, or in number of visitors to US aquaria compared to counterfactual expectations. It is vital that an evidence-based discourse is used when communicating potential impacts of popular culture on human-wildlife relationships to avoid loss of credibility and misdirection of conservation resources.

Why we must question the militarisation of conservation

Concerns about poaching and trafficking have led conservationists to seek urgent responses to tackle the impact on wildlife. One possible solution is the militarisation of conservation, which holds potentially far-reaching consequences. It is important to engage critically with the militarisation of conservation, including identifying and reflecting on the problems it produces for wildlife, for people living with wildlife and for those tasked with implementing militarised strategies. This Perspectives piece is a first step towards synthesising the main themes in emerging critiques of militarised conservation. We identify five major themes: first, the importance of understanding how poaching is defined; second, understanding the ways that local communities experience militarised conservation; third, the experiences of rangers; fourth, how the militarisation of conservation can contribute to violence where conservation operates in the context of armed conflict; and finally how it fits in with and reflects wider political economic dynamics. Ultimately, we suggest that failure to engage more critically with militarisation risks making things worse for the people involved and lead to poor conservation outcomes in the long run.

The origin of exotic pet sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) kept in the United States of America

The demand for exotic non-domesticated animals kept as pets in the United States of America (USA) is increasing the exportation rates of these species from their native ranges. Often, illegal harvesting of these species is used to boost captive-bred numbers and meet this demand. One such species, the sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps), endemic to Australia and New Guinea is a popular domestic pet due to its small size and “cute” demeanour. Despite a legal avenue for trade existing in Indonesia, concerns have been raised that sugar gliders may be entering the USA from other parts of their native range where exportation is prohibited such as Australia, Papua New Guinea and the surrounding Indonesian islands. We compared previously published DNA sequences from across the native range of sugar gliders with samples collected from domestically kept sugar gliders within the USA to determine provenance and gene flow between source and introduced populations. Here we show that as predicted, the USA sugar glider population originates from West Papua, Indonesia with no illegal harvesting from other native areas such as Papua New Guinea or Australia evident in the samples tested within this study.

Dealing in deadly pathogens: Taking stock of the legal trade in live wildlife and potential risks to human health

Zoonotic diseases cause millions of deaths every year. Diseases such as Ebola, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and avian influenza cause economic losses at the global level and jeopardize diplomatic relations between countries. As wildlife are the source of at least 70% of all emerging diseases and given the on-going concerns associated with wildlife trade as a disease transmission mechanism, we provide a 'global snapshot' of the legal trade in live wild animals and take stock of the potential health risks that it poses to global human health. Our analysis showed that 11,569,796 individual live wild animals, representing 1316 different species were exported from 189 different countries between 2012 and 2016. China was the largest exporter of live mammals (with 98,979 animals representing 58.7% of global trade). Nicaragua was the largest exporter of live amphibians (with 122,592 animals representing 53.8% of global trade). South Africa was the largest exporter of live birds (with 889,607 animals representing 39.2% of global trade). Peru was the largest exporter of live reptiles (with 1,675,490 animals representing 18.8% of global trade). Our analysis showed that mostly the USA and other high-income countries, the largest importers, drive the live animal trade. High-income countries and not the countries where wildlife diseases and pathogens are more likely to occur reported almost all of the disease reports to the World Organisation for Animal Health. Based on our findings, we discuss how maximising trade bans; working on human behaviour change and improving regulatory efforts to improve surveillance will decrease the risk of future pandemics, epidemics and outbreaks.

Zootherapeutic uses of wildmeat and associated products in the semiarid region of Brazil: general aspects and challenges for conservation

BACKGROUND

Hunting wildlife for medicinal purposes is a widespread practice throughout Brazil; however, studies about the animals used for zootherapeutic practices have been performed almost exclusively with traders (herbalists) and end consumers, and not hunters. This makes it difficult to completely understand the market chain, trade strategies, and drivers of this practice. The present study investigated the species hunted or trapped for traditional medicinal uses by collecting data about the use and trade of the zootheurapeutic species.

METHODS

We collected data through semi-structured questionnaires complemented by free interviews and informal conversations with hunters in five municipalities of semiarid region of the NE Brazil. We calculated the Use-Value (UV) index to determine the relative importance of each species reported by interviewees. The Multiple Linear Regression model was used to assess the influence of socioeconomic factors (age, schooling, residence zone, trade of zootherapeutic species) on species richness exploited by hunters.

RESULTS

Hunters reported a significant richness of species (n = 39) intentionally or opportunistically captured for use as remedies for treatment of 92 diseases or conditions in humans or livestock. Respondents also reported trade strategies that were well-organized and quickly directed the selling of wild animals or byproducts via modern technology. We found a weak positive relationship only between species richness and hunters' age via MLR model.

CONCLUSIONS

The hunting and use of wild species for medicinal purposes are culturally disseminated activities among hunters. Our results demonstrate the importance of studying hunters in order to understanding the dynamics of bushmeat exploitation and to develop more efficient strategies for wildlife use and conservation.

Aquarium Trade Supply-Chain Losses of Marine Invertebrates Originating from Papua New Guinea

A major difficulty in managing live organism wildlife trade is often the reliance on trade data to monitor exploitation of wild populations. Harvested organisms that die or are discarded before a point of sale are regularly not reported. For the global marine aquarium trade, identifying supply-chain losses is necessary to more accurately assess exploitation from trade data. We examined quality control rejections and mortality of marine invertebrates (Asteroidea, Gastropoda, Malacostraca, Ophiuroidea) moving through the Papua New Guinea marine aquarium supply-chain, from fisher to importer. Utilizing catch invoices and exporter mortality records we determined that, over a 160 day period, 38.6% of the total invertebrate catch (n = 13,299 individuals) was lost before export. Supply-chain losses were divided among invertebrates rejected in the quality control process (11.5%) and mortality of the accepted catch in transit to, and during holding at, an export facility (30.6%). A further 0.3% died during international transit to importers. We quantified supply-chain losses for the ten most fished species which accounted for 96.4% of the catch. Quality control rejections (n = 1533) were primarily explained by rejections of oversized invertebrates (83.2% of rejections). We suggest that enforceable size limits on species prone to size-based rejections and elimination of village-based holding of invertebrates would reduce losses along the Papua New Guinea supply-chain. This case study underscores that low mortality during international transit may mask large losses along supply-chains prior to export and exemplifies the limitations of trade data to accurately monitor exploitation.

A novel application of mark-recapture to examine behaviour associated with the online trade in elephant ivory

The illegal trade in elephant ivory is driving the unlawful killing of elephants such that populations are now suffering unsustainable reductions. The internet is increasingly being used as a platform to conduct illegal wildlife trade, including elephant ivory. As a globally accessible medium the internet is as highly attractive to those involved in the illegal trade as it is challenging to regulate. Characterising the online illegal wildlife (ivory) trade is complex, yet key to informing enforcement activities. We applied mark-recapture to investigate behaviour associated with the online trade in elephant ivory on eBay UK as a generalist online marketplace. Our results indicate that trade takes place via eBay UK, despite its policy prohibiting this, and that two distinct trading populations exist, characterised by the pattern of their ivory sales. We suggest these may represent a large number of occasional (or non-commercial) sellers and a smaller number of dedicated (or commercial) sellers. Directing resource towards reducing the volume of occasional sales, such as through education, would enable greater focus to be placed upon characterising the extent and value of the illegal, "commercial" online ivory trade. MRC has the potential to characterise the illegal trade in ivory and diverse wildlife commodities traded using various online platforms.

Sympathy for the devil: a conservation strategy for devil and manta rays

BACKGROUND

International trade for luxury products, medicines, and tonics poses a threat to both terrestrial and marine wildlife. The demand for and consumption of gill plates (known as Peng Yu Sai, "Fish Gill of Mobulid Ray") from devil and manta rays (subfamily Mobulinae, collectively referred to as mobulids) poses a significant threat to these marine fishes because of their extremely low productivity. The demand for these gill plates has driven an international trade supplied by largely unmonitored and unregulated catches from target and incidental fisheries around the world. Scientific research, conservation campaigns, and legal protections for devil rays have lagged behind those for manta rays despite similar threats across all mobulids.

METHODS

To investigate the difference in attention given to devil rays and manta rays, we examined trends in the scientific literature and updated species distribution maps for all mobulids. Using available information on target and incidental fisheries, and gathering information on fishing and trade regulations (at international, national, and territorial levels), we examined how threats and protective measures overlap with species distribution. We then used a species conservation planning approach to develop the Global Devil and Manta Ray Conservation Strategy, specifying a vision, goals, objectives, and actions to advance the knowledge and protection of both devil and manta rays.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Our literature review revealed that there had been nearly 2.5-times more "manta"-titled publications, than "mobula" or "devil ray"-titled publications over the past 4.5 years (January 2012-June 2016). The majority of these recent publications were reports on occurrence of mobulid species. These publications contributed to updated Area of Occupancy and Extent of Occurrence maps which showed expanded distributions for most mobulid species and overlap between the two genera. While several international protections have recently expanded to include all mobulids, there remains a greater number of national, state, and territory-level protections for manta rays compared to devil rays. We hypothesize that there are fewer scientific publications and regulatory protections for devil rays due primarily to perceptions of charisma that favour manta rays. We suggest that the well-established species conservation framework used here offers an objective solution to close this gap. To advance the goals of the conservation strategy we highlight opportunities for parity in protection and suggest solutions to help reduce target and bycatch fisheries.

Potential Pathogens Reported in Species of the Family Viverridae and Their Implications for Human and Animal Health

The Viverridae is a family of nocturnal carnivores including civets, genets and African linsangs. While a list of known organisms isolated from a species is an essential tool for population management, this review represents the first attempt to collate published reports of organisms isolated from viverrids. A wide range of organisms, including 11 viruses, eight bacterial species, one internal arthropod species, representatives from eight genera of protozoan, 21 genera of nematode, seven genera of cestode, eight genera of trematode and six genera of external arthropod (mites, ticks and louse), have been reported in literature spanning over a century of research. Many of these are capable of infecting multiple hosts, including humans. This is of concern given the anthropogenic factors that bring humans and domestic species into close contact with viverrids, facilitating transmission and spillover of organisms between groups. These factors include trade in viverrids for human consumption, captive management in zoos, rescue centres or on commercial breeding farms, and the increasing overlap of free-ranging viverrid distribution and human settlement.

Expanding our understanding of the trade in marine aquarium animals

The trade of live marine animals for home and public aquaria has grown into a major global industry. Millions of marine fishes and invertebrates are removed from coral reefs and associated habitats each year. The majority are imported into the United States, with the remainder sent to Europe, Japan, and a handful of other countries. Despite the recent growth and diversification of the aquarium trade, to date, data collection is not mandatory, and hence comprehensive information on species volume and diversity is lacking. This lack of information makes it impossible to study trade pathways. Without species-specific volume and diversity data, it is unclear how importing and exporting governments can oversee this industry effectively or how sustainability should be encouraged. To expand our knowledge and understanding of the trade, and to effectively communicate this new understanding, we introduce the publically-available Marine Aquarium Biodiversity and Trade Flow online database (https://www.aquariumtradedata.org/). This tool was created to communicate the volume and diversity of marine fishes and/or invertebrates imported into the US over three complete years (2008, 2009, and 2011) and three partial years (2000, 2004, 2005). To create this tool, invoices pertaining to shipments of live marine fishes and invertebrates were scanned and analyzed for species name, species quantities, country of origin, port of entry, and city of import destination. Here we focus on the analysis of the later three years of data and also produce an estimate for the entirety of 2000, 2004, and 2005. The three-year aggregate totals (2008, 2009, 2011) indicate that just under 2,300 fish and 725 invertebrate species were imported into the US cumulatively, although just under 1,800 fish and 550 invertebrate species were traded annually. Overall, the total number of live marine animals decreased between 2008 and 2011. In 2008, 2009, and 2011, the total number of individual fish (8.2, 7.3, and 6.9 million individuals) and invertebrates (4.2, 3.7, and 3.6 million individuals) assessed by analyzing the invoice data are roughly 60% of the total volumes recorded through the Law Enforcement Management Information System (LEMIS) dataset. Using these complete years, we back-calculated the number of individuals of both fishes and invertebrates imported in 2000, 2004, and 2005. These estimates (9.3, 10.8, and 11.2 million individual fish per year) were consistent with the three years of complete data. We also use these data to understand the global trade in two species (Banggai cardinalfish, Pterapogon kauderni, and orange clownfish, Amphiprion ocellaris / percula) recently considered for Endangered Species Act listing. Aquariumtradedata.org can help create more effective management plans for the traded species, and ideally could be implemented at key trade ports to better assess the global trade of aquatic wildlife.

Provide context when reporting on the use of protected and endangered wildlife in ethnopharmacological surveys

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The value of reports on the use of wildlife in ethnopharmacological surveys increases when context is provided on the legality of its use and on the species' conservation status.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate if context is provided when protected and threatened animals are reported as being used in traditional medicine, and to provide recommendations for future reporting.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Review of recent papers in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology.

RESULTS

Rarely is information provided on (1) the conservation status of the animals that are used in traditional medicine, (2) whether the parts can be obtained non-invasively or if the animals have to be killed, or (3) whether or not it is legal to use the animals, their parts or derivatives according to national law.

CONCLUSION

When presenting the results of ethnopharmalogical surveys include (1) the conservation status of the species affected, (2) whether or not parts could be harvested non-invasively and (3) the legality of harvesting and / or trading these animals, their parts or their derivatives. Our focus here is on animals, given that more so than in plants or fungi, many of their parts used in natural medicine cannot be obtained non-invasively, but a similar set of guidelines could be developed for other taxa.

Effects of yearling, juvenile and adult survival on reef manta ray (Manta alfredi) demography

Background

The trade in manta ray gill plates has considerably increased over the last two decades. The resulting increases in ray mortality, in addition to mortality caused by by-catch, has caused many ray populations to decrease in size. The aim of this study was to ascertain how yearling and juvenile growth and survival, and adult survival and reproduction affect reef manta ray (Manta alfredi) population change, to increase our understanding of manta ray demography and thereby improve conservation research and measures for these fish.

Methods

We developed a population projection model for reef manta rays, and used published life history data on yearling and juvenile growth and adult reproduction to parameterise the model. Because little is known about reef manta ray yearling and juvenile survival, we conducted our analyses using a range of plausible survival rate values for yearlings, juveniles and adults.

Results

The model accurately captured observed variation in population growth rate, lifetime reproductive success and cohort generation time in different reef manta ray populations. Our demographic analyses revealed a range of population consequences in response to variation in demographic rates. For example, an increase in yearling or adult survival rates always elicited greater responses in population growth rate, lifetime reproductive success and cohort generation time than the same increase in juvenile survival rate. The population growth rate increased linearly, but lifetime reproductive success and cohort generation time increased at an accelerating rate with increasing yearling or adult survival rates. Hence, even a small increase in survival rate could increase lifetime reproductive success by one pup, and cohort generation time by several years. Elasticity analyses revealed that, depending on survival rate values of all life stages, the population growth rate is either most sensitive to changes in the rate with which juveniles survive but stay juveniles (i.e., do not mature into adults) or to changes in adult survival rate. However, when assessing these results against estimates on population growth and adult survival rates for populations off the coasts of Mozambique and Japan, we found that the population growth rate is predicted to be always most sensitive to changes in the adult survival rate.

Discussion

It is important to gain an in-depth understanding of reef manta ray life histories, particularly of yearling and adult survival rates, as these can influence reef manta ray population dynamics in a variety of ways. For declining populations in particular, it is crucial to know which life stage should be targeted for their conservation. For one such declining population off the coast of Mozambique, adult annual survival rate has the greatest effect on population growth, and by increasing adult survival by protecting adult aggregation sites, this population’s decline could be halted or even reversed.

Diagnosing the dangerous demography of manta rays using life history theory

Background. The directed harvest and global trade in the gill plates of mantas, and devil rays, has led to increased fishing pressure and steep population declines in some locations. The slow life history, particularly of the manta rays, is cited as a key reason why such species have little capacity to withstand directed fisheries. Here, we place their life history and demography within the context of other sharks and rays. Methods. Despite the limited availability of data, we use life history theory and comparative analysis to estimate the intrinsic risk of extinction (as indexed by the maximum intrinsic rate of population increase r max) for a typical generic manta ray using a variant of the classic Euler-Lotka demographic model. This model requires only three traits to calculate the maximum intrinsic population growth rate r max: von Bertalanffy growth rate, annual pup production and age at maturity. To account for the uncertainty in life history parameters, we created plausible parameter ranges and propagate these uncertainties through the model to calculate a distribution of the plausible range of r max values. Results. The maximum population growth rate r max of manta ray is most sensitive to the length of the reproductive cycle, and the median r max of 0.116 year(-1) 95th percentile [0.089-0.139] is one of the lowest known of the 106 sharks and rays for which we have comparable demographic information. Discussion. In common with other unprotected, unmanaged, high-value large-bodied sharks and rays the combination of very low population growth rates of manta rays, combined with the high value of their gill rakers and the international nature of trade, is highly likely to lead to rapid depletion and potential local extinction unless a rapid conservation management response occurs worldwide. Furthermore, we show that it is possible to derive important insights into the demography extinction risk of data-poor species using well-established life history theory.

Wildlife trade, consumption and conservation awareness in southwest China

Commercial trade in wildlife is the major cause of species endangerment and a main threat to animal welfare in China and its neighboring countries. Driven by consumptive use for food and traditional medicine, the large volume of both legal and illegal trade in wildlife has caused great destruction to ecosystems and pushed many species to the brink of extinction. Data gathered from trading hubs at ports, boundary markets, city markets and stores, indicates the large amount of wildlife traded in the region of Guangxi, Yunnan and Qinghai provinces, a direct result of the numerous wildlife markets available. In a survey distributed in various trading places, while about half of the respondents agreed that wildlife should be protected, 60% of them had consumed wildlife at some point in the last 2 years. The results also indicated that law and regulation on wildlife trade control is insufficient. Wildlife trade controls are very limited because of bias on the utilization of wildlife as a natural resource to be exploited by the government agencies. The survey also shows that the current situation of wildlife consumption in key cities in China is serious, especially the consumption for food. The main consumption groups in China are male and young people with high education levels and good incomes. The key in public awareness publicity and education is to give them more information on the negative impacts of wildlife consumption and knowledge of protection.