Electronic Structure Analysis of the A10Tt2P6 System (A=Li-Cs; Tt=Si, Ge, Sn) and Synthesis of the Direct Band Gap Semiconductor K10Sn2P6

Investigating the relationship between atomic and electronic structures is a powerful tool to screen the wide variety of Zintl phases for interesting (opto-)electronic properties. To get an insight in such relations, the A10Tt2P6 system (A=Li-Cs; Tt=Si-Sn) was picked as model system to analyse the influence of structural motives, combination of elements and their properties on type and width of the band gaps. Those compounds comprise two interesting structural motives of their anions, which are either monomeric trigonal planar TtP3 5- units which are isostructural to CO3 2- or [Tt2P6]10- dimers which correspond to two edge-sharing TtP4 tetrahedra. The A10Tt2P6 compounds were structurally optimized for both polymorphs and subsequent frequency analysis, band structure as well as density of states calculations were performed. The Gibbs free energies were compared to determine temperature dependent stability, where Na10Si2P6, Na10Ge2P6 and K10Sn2P6 were found to be candidates for a high temperature phase transition between the two polymorphs. Additionally, the unknown, but predicted compound K10Sn2P6 was synthesized and characterized by single crystal and powder x-ray diffraction. It crystalizes in the monoclinic space group P 21/n and incorporates [Sn2P6]10- edge sharing double tetrahedra. It was determined to be a direct band gap semiconductor with a band gap of 2.57 eV.

Dendritic Copper Current Collectors as a Capacity Boosting Material for Polymer-Templated Si/Ge/C Anodes in Li-Ion Batteries

Dendritic copper offers a highly effective method for synthesizing porous copper anodes due to its intricate branching structure. This morphology results in an elevated surface area-to-volume ratio, facilitating shortened electron pathways during aqueous and electrolyte permeation. Here, we demonstrate a procedure for a time- and cost-efficient synthesis routine of fern-like copper microstructures as a host for polymer-templated Si/Ge/C thin films. Dissolvable Zintl clusters and sol-gel chemistry are used to synthesize nanoporous coating as the anode. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) with KOH as the electrolyte is used to estimate the surface area increase in the dendritic copper current collectors (CCs). Half cells are assembled and tested with battery-related techniques such as CV, galvanostatic cycling, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, showing a capacity increase in the dendritic copper cells. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy is used to estimate the removal of K in the bulk after oxidizing the Zintl phase K12Si8Ge9 in the polymer/precursor blend with SiCl4. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy images are provided to depict the thin films after synthesis and track the degradation of the half cells after cycling, revealing that the morphological degradation through alloying/dealloying is reduced for the dendritic Cu CC anodes as compared with the bare reference. Finally, we highlight this time- and cost-efficient routine for synthesizing this capacity-boosting material for low-mobility and high-capacity anode coatings.

Breaking the Minimum Limit of Thermal Conductivity of Mg3 Sb2 Thermoelectric Mediated by Chemical Alloying Induced Lattice Instability

Thermal properties strongly affect the applications of functional materials, such as thermal management, thermal barrier coatings, and thermoelectrics. Thermoelectric (TE) materials must have a low lattice thermal conductivity to maintain a temperature gradient to generate the voltage. Traditional strategies for minimizing the lattice thermal conductivity mainly rely on introduced multiscale defects to suppress the propagation of phonons. Here, the origin of the anomalously low lattice thermal conductivity is uncovered in Cd-alloyed Mg3 Sb2 Zintl compounds through complementary bonding analysis. First, the weakened chemical bonds and the lattice instability induced by the antibonding states of 5p-4d levels between Sb and Cd triggered giant anharmonicity and consequently increased the phonon scattering. Moreover, the bond heterogeneity also augmented Umklapp phonon scatterings. Second, the weakened bonds and heavy element alloying softened the phonon mode and significantly decreased the group velocity. Thus, an ultralow lattice thermal conductivity of ≈0.33 W m-1 K-1 at 773 K is obtained, which is even lower than the predicated minimum value. Eventually, Na0.01 Mg1.7 Cd1.25 Sb2 displays a high ZT of ≈0.76 at 773 K, competitive with most of the reported values. Based on the complementary bonding analysis, the work provides new means to control thermal transport properties through balancing the lattice stability and instability.

Contradicting Influence of Zn Alloying on Electronic and Thermal Properties of a YbCd2 Sb2 -Based Zintl Phase at 700 K

Zintl compounds are promising thermoelectric materials for power generation as their electronic and thermal transport properties can be simultaneously engineered with anion/cation alloying. Recently, a peak thermoelectric figure-of-merit, zT, of 1.4 was achieved in a (Yb_0.9 Mg_0.1 )Cd_1.2 Mg_0.4 Zn_0.4 Sb₂ Zintl phase at 700 K. Although the effects of alloying Zn in lattice thermal conductivity had been studied thoroughly, how the Zn alloying affects its electronic transport properties has not yet been fully investigated. This study evaluates how the Zn alloying at Cd sites alters the band parameters of (Yb_0.9 Mg_0.1 )Cd_1.6-x Mg_0.4 Zn_x Sb₂ (x=0-0.6) using the Single Parabolic Band model at 700 K. The Zn alloying increased the density-of-states effective mass (m_d ^* ) from 0.87 to 0.97 m₀ . Among Zn-alloyed samples, the m_d ^* of the x=0.4 sample was the lowest (0.93 m₀ ). The Zn alloying decreased the non-degenerate mobility (μ₀ ) from 71 to 57 cm²  s^-1  V^-1 . Regardless of Zn alloying content, the μ₀ of the Zn-alloyed samples were similar (∼57 cm²  s^-1  V^-1 ). Consequently, the x=0.4 with the highest zT exhibited the lowest weighted mobility (μ_W ). The lowest μ_W represents the lowest theoretical electronic transport properties among other x. The highest zT at x=0.4 despite the lowest μ_W was explained with a significant lattice thermal conductivity reduction achieved with Zn alloying with x=0.4, which outweighed the deteriorated electronic transport properties also due to the alloying.

Exploring the Promise of Multifunctional "Zintl-Phase-Forming" Electrolytes for Si-Based Full Cells

Li-M-Si ternary Zintl phases have gained attention recently due to their high structural stability, which can improve the cycling stability compared to a bulk Si electrode. Adding multivalent cation salts (such as Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺) in the electrolyte was proven to be a simple way to form Li-M-Si ternary phases in situ in Si-based Li-ion cells. To explore the promise of Zintl-phase-forming electrolytes, we systematically investigated their application in pouch cells via electrochemical and multiscale postmortem analysis. The introduction of multivalent cations, such as Mg²⁺, during charging can form Li_xM_ySi ternary phases. They can stabilize Si anions and reduce side reactions with electrolyte, improving the bulk stability. More importantly, Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ incorporate into interfacial side reactions and generate inorganic-rich solid-electrolyte interphase, thus enhancing the interfacial stability. Therefore, the full cells with Zintl-phase-forming electrolytes achieve higher capacity retentions at the C/3 rate after 100 cycles, compared to a baseline electrolyte. Additionally, strategies for mitigating the electrode-level fractures of Si were evaluated to make the best use of Zintl-phase-forming electrolytes. This work highlights the significance of synergistic impact of multifunctional additives to stabilize both bulk and interface chemistry in high-energy Si anode materials for Li-ion batteries.

Improved Thermal Stability and Enhanced Thermoelectric Properties of p-Type BaCu2Te2 by Doping of Cl

Doping in semiconductors is a widely implemented strategy for manipulation of carrier concentration, which is a critical parameter to regulate the thermoelectric performance. Stoichiometric BaCu₂Te₂ shows high hole concentration and unstable transport properties owing to the inherent Cu vacancy and dynamic precipitation behavior. In this work, Te has been partially substituted by Cl in BaCu₂Te₂ to suppress the overhigh hole concentration. Due to the high electronegativity of Cl, strong Cl-Cu bonds can significantly inhibit the Cu migration and the consequent dynamic precipitation. Meanwhile, nano-precipitate BaCl₂ distributes in the grain boundary, acting as ionic blocking layers. Therefore, the thermal stability of the samples can be essentially improved via chemical bonding strengthening and grain boundary engineering. In terms of thermal transport, the introduced point defects and second phase strengthen the short-wavelength and medium-wavelength phonon scattering, leading to further reduced thermal conductivity. Eventually, the repeatable ZT value of BaCu₂Te_1.98Cl_0.02 reached 1.22 at 823 K, which is higher by 19.6% compared with 1.02 of pristine BaCu₂Te₂. The average ZTs of BaCu₂Te_2-xCl_x (x = 0, 0.02, 0.04, and 0.06) in the temperature range of 323-823 K are 0.737 for x = 0.02, 0.689 for x = 0.04, and 0.667 for x = 0.06, which are 24.6, 17.2, and 13.4% higher than the average ZT of 0.588 corresponding to the undoped sample, respectively. The study shows that synergetic enhancements of thermal stability and thermoelectric properties can be achieved by strengthening chemical bonding and constructing ionic blocking layers in the grain boundary, which can be applied to other fast-ionic conductor thermoelectric materials.

Alkyne Hydrogenation Catalysis across a Family of Ga/In Layered Zintl Phases

Transition-metal-free Zintl-Klemm phases have received little attention as heterogeneous catalysis. Here, we show that a large family of structurally and electronically similar layered Zintl-Klemm phases built from honeycomb layers of group 13 triel (Tr) or group 14 tetrel (Tt) networks separated by electropositive cations (A) and having a stoichiometry of ATr2 or ATrTt (A = Ca, Ba, Y, La, Eu; Tr = Ga, In; Tt = Si, Ge) exhibit varying degrees of activity for the hydrogenation of phenylacetylene to styrene and ethylbenzene at 51 bar H2 and 40-100 °C across a variety of solvents. The most active catalysts contain Ga with, formally, a half-filled pz orbital, and minimal bonding between neighboring Tr2 or TrTt layers. A 13-layer trigonal polytype of CaGaGe (13T-CaGaGe) was the most active, cyclable, and robust catalyst and under modest conditions (1 atm H2, 40 °C) had a surface specific activity (590 h-1) comparable to a commercial Lindlar's catalyst. Additionally, 13T-CaGaGe maintained 100% conversion of phenylacetylene to styrene at 51 bar H2, even after 5 months of air exposure. This work reveals the structural design elements that lead to particularly high catalytic activity in Zintl-Klemm phases, further establishing them as a promising materials platform for hydrogen-based heterogeneous catalysis.

Crystal structure characterization and electronic structure of a rare-earth-containing Zintl phase in the Yb-Al-Sb family: Yb3AlSb3

A rare-earth-containing compound, ytterbium aluminium antimonide, Yb₃AlSb₃ (Ca₃AlAs₃-type structure), has been successfully synthesized within the Yb-Al-Sb system through flux methods. According to the Zintl formalism, this structure is nominally made up of (Yb²⁺)₃[(Al^1-)(1b - Sb^2-)₂(2b - Sb^1-)], where 1b and 2b indicate 1-bonded and 2-bonded, respectively, and Al is treated as part of the covalent anionic network. The crystal structure features infinite corner-sharing AlSb₄ tetrahedra, [AlSb₂Sb_2/2]^6-, with Yb²⁺ cations residing between the tetrahedra to provide charge balance. Herein, the synthetic conditions, the crystal structure determined from single-crystal X-ray diffraction data, and electronic structure calculations are reported.

Synthesis, structural characterization, and electronic structure of the novel Zintl phase Ba2ZnP2

The novel Zintl phase dibarium zinc diphosphide (Ba₂ZnP₂) was synthesized for the first time. This was accomplished using the Pb flux technique, which allowed for the growth of crystals of adequate size for structural determination via single-crystal X-ray diffraction methods. The Ba₂ZnP₂ compound was determined to crystallize in a body-centered orthorhombic space group, Ibam (No. 72). Formally, this crystallographic arrangement belongs to the K₂SiP₂ structure type. Therefore, the structure can be best described as infinite [ZnP₂]^4- polyanionic chains with divalent Ba²⁺ cations located between the chains. All valence electrons are partitioned, which conforms to the Zintl-Klemm concept and suggests that Ba₂ZnP₂ is a valence-precise composition. The electronic band structure of this new compound, computed with the aid of the TB-LMTO-ASA code, shows that Ba₂ZnP₂ is an intrinsic semiconductor with a band gap of ca 0.6 eV.

Electronic stabilization by occupational disorder in the ternary bismuthide Li3-x-yInxBi (x ≃ 0.14, y ≃ 0.29)

A ternary derivative of Li₃Bi with the composition Li_3-x-yIn_xBi (x ≃ 0.14, y ≃ 0.29) was produced by a mixed In+Bi flux approach. The crystal structure adopts the space group Fd-3m (No. 227), with a = 13.337 (4) Å, and can be viewed as a 2 × 2 × 2 superstructure of the parent Li₃Bi phase, resulting from a partial ordering of Li and In in the tetrahedral voids of the Bi fcc packing. In addition to the Li/In substitutional disorder, partial occupation of some Li sites is observed. The Li deficiency develops to reduce the total electron count in the system, counteracting thereby the electron doping introduced by the In substitution. First-principles calculations confirm the electronic rationale of the observed disorder.

Enhanced Thermoelectric Performance of Zintl Phase Ca9Zn4+xSb9 by Beneficial Disorder on the Selective Cationic Site

Zintl phase compounds Ca₉Zn_4+xSb₉ have promising thermoelectric properties due to their complex crystal structure and tunable interstitial Zn. In this work, we prepared nominal Ca₉Zn_4+xSb₉ (x = 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, and 0.8) using ball milling and hot pressing. Further decreased lattice thermal conductivity was obtained by isoelectronic substitution of Eu on the selective Ca site, which is farther away from the framework of [Zn_4+xSb₉]^δ- for the smaller disturbance of carrier transport. Together with the intensively enhanced carrier mobility, which is attributed to the decreased effective mass and the increased interstitial Zn by inclusion of Eu, an increased peak ZT value to ∼1.05 at 773 K and an enhanced average ZT value to ∼0.73 from 300 to 823 K were achieved in Ca_6.75Eu_2.25Zn_4.7Sb₉.

Synthesis of the Tetragonal Phase of Zintl's NaTl and Its Structure Determination from Powder Diffraction Data

A tetragonal distortion of the long-time known NaTl structure at 298 K was observed in different experimental setups, including Zintl's original procedure of reducing Tl(I)-iodide by sodium liquid ammonia solutions. The powder diffraction pattern obtained by the high temperature synthesis using classical solid-state techniques allowed a model-independent unambiguous structure solution and refinement of tetragonal distorted NaTl (Rp = 0.0179, wRp = 0.0246, R = 0.0477, wR = 0.0527, GooF = 1.24).

Zintl Phases as Reactive Precursors for Synthesis of Novel Silicon and Germanium-Based Materials

Recent experimental and theoretical work has demonstrated significant potential to tune the properties of silicon and germanium by adjusting the mesostructure, nanostructure, and/or crystalline structure of these group 14 elements. Despite the promise to achieve enhanced functionality with these already technologically important elements, a significant challenge lies in the identification of effective synthetic approaches that can access metastable silicon and germanium-based extended solids with a particular crystal structure or specific nano/meso-structured features. In this context, the class of intermetallic compounds known as Zintl phases has provided a platform for discovery of novel silicon and germanium-based materials. This review highlights some of the ways in which silicon and germanium-based Zintl phases have been utilized as precursors in innovative approaches to synthesize new crystalline modifications, nanoparticles, nanosheets, and mesostructured and nanoporous extended solids with properties that can be very different from the ground states of the elements.

Zintl-phase Eu2ZnSb2: A promising thermoelectric material with ultralow thermal conductivity

Zintl compounds are considered to be potential thermoelectric materials due to their "phonon glass electron crystal" (PGEC) structure. A promising Zintl-phase thermoelectric material, 2-1-2-type Eu₂ZnSb₂ (P6₃/mmc), was prepared and investigated. The extremely low lattice thermal conductivity is attributed to the external Eu atomic layers inserted in the [Zn₂Sb₂]^2- network in the structure of 1-2-2-type EuZn₂Sb₂ [Formula: see text], as well as the abundant inversion domain boundary. By regulating the Zn deficiency, the electrical properties are significantly enhanced, and the maximum ZT value reaches ∼1.0 at 823 K for Eu₂Zn_0.98Sb₂ Our discovery provides a class of Zintl thermoelectric materials applicable in the medium-temperature range.

Intentional Carrier Doping to Realize n-Type Conduction in Zintl Phases Eu5-yLayIn2.2Sb₆

Due to the tunable electrical transport properties and lower thermal conductivity, Zintl phase compounds have been considered as a promising candidate for thermoelectric applications. Most Sb-based Zintl compounds exhibit essentially p-type conduction as result of the cation vacancy. Herein, n-type Zintl phases Eu_5−yLa_yIn_2.2Sb₆ has been successfully synthesized via controlling the vacancy defect combined with intentional electron doping. Excess of In would occupy the vacancy while La doping enables the electron to be the major carrier at the measured temperate range, realizing the n-type conduction for Eu_5−yLa_yIn_2.2Sb₆ (y ≥ 0.04). Meanwhile, the thermal conductivity of Eu_5−yLa_yIn_2.2Sb₆ reduces from 0.90 W/mK to 0.72 W/mK at 583 K derived from the La doping-induced disorder. The maximum thermoelectric figure of merit zT = 0.13 was obtained. This work firstly realizes the n-type conduction in Eu₅In₂Sb₆, which sheds light on the strategy to synthesize n-type Zintl thermoelectric materials and promotes the practical applications of Zintl thermoelectric devices.

Structural and Electronic Flexibility in Hydrides of Zintl Phases with Tetrel-Hydrogen and Tetrel-Tetrel Bonds

The hydrogenation of Zintl phases enables the formation of new structural entities with main-group-element-hydrogen bonds in the solid state. The hydrogenation of SrSi, BaSi, and BaGe yields the hydrides SrSiH_5/3-x, BaSiH_5/3-x and BaGeH_5/3-x . The crystal structures show a sixfold superstructure compared to the parent Zintl phase and were solved by a combination of X-ray, neutron, and electron diffraction and the aid of DFT calculations. Layers of connected HSr₄ (HBa₄ ) tetrahedra containing hydride ions alternate with layers of infinite single- and double-chain polyanions, in which hydrogen atoms are covalently bound to silicon and germanium. The idealized formulae AeTtH_5/3 (Ae=alkaline earth, Tt=tetrel) can be rationalized with the Zintl-Klemm concept according to (Ae²⁺ )₃ (TtH^- )(Tt₂ H^2- )(H^- )₃ , where all Tt atoms are three-binding. The non-stoichiometry (SrSiH_5/3-x , x=0.17(2); BaGeH_5/3-x , x=0.10(3)) can be explained by additional π-bonding of the Tt chains.

Binary Alkali-Metal Silicon Clathrates by Spark Plasma Sintering: Preparation and Characterization

The binary intermetallic clathrates K_8-xSi₄₆ (x = 0.4; 1.2), Rb_6.2Si₄₆, Rb_11.5Si₁₃₆ and Cs_7.8Si₁₃₆ were prepared from M₄Si₄ (M = K, Rb, Cs) precursors by spark-plasma route (SPS) and structurally characterized by Rietveld refinement of PXRD data. The clathrate-II phase Rb_11.5Si₁₃₆ was synthesized for the first time. Partial crystallographic site occupancy of the alkali metals, particularly for the smaller Si₂₀ dodecahedra, was found in all compounds. SPS preparation of Na₂₄Si₁₃₆ with different SPS current polarities and tooling were performed in order to investigate the role of the electric field on clathrate formation. The electrical and thermal transport properties of K_7.6Si₄₆ and K_6.8Si₄₆ in the temperature range 4–700 K were investigated. Our findings demonstrate that SPS is a novel tool for the synthesis of intermetallic clathrate phases that are not easily accessible by conventional synthesis techniques.

Ca4As3 - a new binary calcium arsenide

The binary compound Ca₄As₃crystallizes in the Ba₄P₃ structure type and is thus a homologue of isotypic Sr₄As₃. The As atoms are connected by a single bond thus this calcium arsenide is a Zintl phase.

The crystal structure of the binary compound tetra­calcium triarsenide, Ca₄As₃, was investigated by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Ca₄As₃ crystallizes in the Ba₄P₃ structure type and is thus a homologue of isotypic Sr₄As₃. The unit cell contains 32 Ca²⁺ cations, 16 As³⁻ isolated anions and four centrosymmetric [As₂]^4– dumbbells. The As atoms in each of the dumbbells are connected by a single bond, thus this calcium arsenide is a Zintl phase.

A thermoelectric zintl phase Na2+x Ga2+x Sn4-x with disordered Na atoms in helical tunnels

A polycrystalline sample of Na2+x Ga2+x Sn4-x with x = 0.19 has low thermal conductivities of 0.56 and 0.58 W m(-1) K(-1) due to static and dynamic positional disorder of Na atoms in the crystal structure and dimensionless figures of merit (ZT values) values of 0.98 and 1.28 at 295 and 340 K, respectively. The performance is comparable to those of commercial Bi2 Te3 -based materials.