1
|
Zhou Y, Liang M, Zhang X, He Q, Lv L, Mao G. Extent and Resistance Patterns of Gram-negative Bacteria Isolated From 13 Hospitals in Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province. New Microbiol 2024; 46:340-347. [PMID: 38252044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Gram-negative bacteria are increasingly recognized as the sauce of severe infections. In recent years, epidemiological data has indicated that the drug resistance rate of Gram-negative bacteria has significantly increased. We analyzed the epidemiological surveillance data of gram-negative bacteria in Shaoxing City in 2021 by retrospectively collecting drug susceptibility data of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter cloacae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Burkholderia cepacian from thirteen tertiary hospitals. A total of 24,142 strains were collected from thirteen hospitals. The isolation rates of E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, A. baumannii, P. mirabilis, E. cloacae, and B. cepacian were 29.25%, 18.83%, 11.03%, 8.43%, 3.80%, 3.12%, and 0.75%, respectively. Among them, 2.86% were carbapenem-resistant E. coli, 12.98% were CRKP, 31.27% were CRPA, and 34.77% were CRAB. Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales were more sensitive to ceftazidime-avibactam and polymyxin. The drug resistance rates of P. aeruginosa and A. baumannii to polymyxin were 0 and 1.3%, but the resistance rates to ceftazidime-avibactam were 10.5% and 26.0%, respectively. Based on results from epidemiological data, CRKP had a high isolation rate and non-fermenting bacteria had a high resistance rate to ceftazidime-avibactam. All hospitals should strengthen monitoring and enact continuous intervention to reduce the generation and spread of drug-resistant bacteria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yiqing Zhou
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Shaoxing People's Hospital (Shaoxing Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine), Shaoxing, China
| | - Meichun Liang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shaoxing People's Hospital (Shaoxing Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine), Shaoxing, China
| | - Xiaojiao Zhang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shaoxing People's Hospital (Shaoxing Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine), Shaoxing, China
| | - Qiuli He
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shaoxing People's Hospital (Shaoxing Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine), Shaoxing, China
| | - Li Lv
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shaoxing People's Hospital (Shaoxing Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine), Shaoxing, China
| | - Guofeng Mao
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shaoxing People's Hospital (Shaoxing Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine), Shaoxing, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Xiong Z, Zhang C, Sarbandi K, Liang Z, Mai J, Liang B, Cai H, Chen X, Gao F, Lan F, Liu X, Liu S, Zhou Z. Clinical and molecular epidemiology of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae in pediatric inpatients in South China. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0283923. [PMID: 37819092 PMCID: PMC10714942 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02839-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE This study assessed the clinical and molecular epidemiology of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae in pediatric inpatients at three hospitals in South China by means of screening stool samples for carbapenem-resistant genes and a nested case-control study to determine risk factors for carriage of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae. Of 4,033 fecal samples screened, 158 (3.92%) were positive for CRE, including Escherichia coli (51.27 %), Klebsiella pneumoniae (37.97%), and Enterobacter cloacae (6.96%). The most common carbapenemase genes harbored by gastrointestinal CRE strains were blaNDM-5, blaNDM-1, and blaIMP-4. Hematological malignancies, respiratory diseases, otolaryngological diseases, nervous system diseases, oral administration of third-generation cephalosporins, and the combined use of two or more antibiotics were independently associated with CRE colonization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhile Xiong
- Longgang Maternity and Child Institute of Shantou University Medical College (Longgang District Maternity & Child Healthcare Hospital of Shenzhen City), Clinical Laboratory, Shenzhen, China
- Guangzhou Women and Children’s Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt – Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Chao Zhang
- Longgang Maternity and Child Institute of Shantou University Medical College (Longgang District Maternity & Child Healthcare Hospital of Shenzhen City), Clinical Laboratory, Shenzhen, China
- Guangzhou Women and Children’s Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Kurosh Sarbandi
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt – Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Zhuwei Liang
- Guangzhou Women and Children’s Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jialiang Mai
- Longgang Maternity and Child Institute of Shantou University Medical College (Longgang District Maternity & Child Healthcare Hospital of Shenzhen City), Clinical Laboratory, Shenzhen, China
- Guangzhou Women and Children’s Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Bingshao Liang
- Guangzhou Women and Children’s Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Hao Cai
- Longgang Maternity and Child Institute of Shantou University Medical College (Longgang District Maternity & Child Healthcare Hospital of Shenzhen City), Clinical Laboratory, Shenzhen, China
- Guangzhou Women and Children’s Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiantang Chen
- Guangzhou Women and Children’s Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Fei Gao
- Guangzhou Women and Children’s Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Fangjun Lan
- Longgang Maternity and Child Institute of Shantou University Medical College (Longgang District Maternity & Child Healthcare Hospital of Shenzhen City), Clinical Laboratory, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xiaochun Liu
- Longgang Maternity and Child Institute of Shantou University Medical College (Longgang District Maternity & Child Healthcare Hospital of Shenzhen City), Clinical Laboratory, Shenzhen, China
| | - Shuyan Liu
- Longgang Maternity and Child Institute of Shantou University Medical College (Longgang District Maternity & Child Healthcare Hospital of Shenzhen City), Clinical Laboratory, Shenzhen, China
| | - Zhenwen Zhou
- Longgang Maternity and Child Institute of Shantou University Medical College (Longgang District Maternity & Child Healthcare Hospital of Shenzhen City), Clinical Laboratory, Shenzhen, China
- Guangzhou Women and Children’s Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
So-ngern A, Osaithai N, Meesing A, Chumpangern W. Mortality rate and factors associated with mortality of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae infection. Drug Target Insights 2023; 17:120-125. [PMID: 38028024 PMCID: PMC10630699 DOI: 10.33393/dti.2023.2622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) is a serious pathogen with high mortality. Recognition of factors associated with mortality and treating these modifiable factors are crucial to reducing mortality. Objective: To determine the 30-day mortality and factors associated with a 30-day mortality of CRE infection. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted between January 1, 2015, and December 31, 2019. All patients diagnosed with CRE infection aged ≥18 years were included. Multivariate logistic regression was used for evaluating the factors associated with 30-day mortality and presented as adjusted odds ratio (aOR) with 95% confidence interval (CI). Result: One hundred and ninety-four patients were enrolled. The 30-day mortality occurred in 75 patients (38.7%). The common antibiotic regimen was monotherapy and combination of carbapenem, colistin, amikacin, tigecycline, and fosfomycin. CRE isolates were susceptible to tigecycline (93.8%), colistin (91.8%), fosfomycin (89.2%), and amikacin (89.2%). The independent factors associated with 30-day mortality were an increasing simplified acute physiology (SAP) II score (aOR 1.11, 95% CI 1.05-1.16, p < 0.001), sepsis at time of CRE infection diagnosis (aOR 7.93, 95% CI 2.21-28.51, p = 0.002), pneumonia (aOR 4.48, 95% CI 1.61-12.44, p = 0.004), monotherapy (aOR 4.69, 95% CI 1.71-12.85, p = 0.003), and improper empiric antibiotic (aOR 5.13, 95% CI 1.83-14.40, p = 0.002). Conclusion: The overall 30-day mortality of CRE infection was high. The factors associated with mortality were an increasing SAP II score, sepsis at time of CRE infection diagnosis, pneumonia, monotherapy, and improper empiric antibiotic. The study suggested that proper empiric antibiotic and combination antibiotics might reduce mortality from CRE infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Apichart So-ngern
- Division of Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen - Thailand
| | - Naphol Osaithai
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen - Thailand
| | - Atibordee Meesing
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicines, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen - Thailand
- Research and Diagnostic Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases (RCEID), Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen - Thailand
| | - Worawat Chumpangern
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine and Pulmonary Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen - Thailand
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Debnath A, Pillinger KE, Martin AJ, Dobrzynski D, Cameron A, Shulder S. Clinical Outcomes and Treatment Strategies in Patients With Non-Carbapenemase-producing Carbapenem-Resistant Versus Carbapenem-Susceptible Enterobacterales Infections. Ann Pharmacother 2022:10600280221132019. [PMID: 36268974 DOI: 10.1177/10600280221132019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) are difficult to treat and can cause significant morbidity and mortality, however most data reflect carbapenemase-producing infections. OBJECTIVE Our objective was to evaluate clinical outcomes of non-carbapenemase-producing CRE (nCP-CRE) compared with carbapenem-susceptible Enterobacterales (CSE) infections. METHODS This was a retrospective, multicenter, observational study (January 1, 2018 to December 31, 2020). The primary outcome was clinical success at 30 days with secondary outcomes, including clinical success at 90 days, clinical success based on treatment for nCP-CRE, persistent bacteremia, intensive care unit (ICU) admission, length of stay, and rate of Clostridioides difficile or multidrug resistant infections. RESULTS The final analysis included 211 patients: 142 (67%) with CSE and 69 (33%) with nCP-CRE infections. Prior carbapenem exposure was more common with nCP-CRE (15% vs 4%, P = 0.01). Clinical success at 30 days was similar between groups (77% vs 74%, P = 0.73). There were no differences in secondary outcomes. There was an overall low use of carbapenems (empiric 6%, definitive 7%). Most nCP-CRE infections were treated with a monotherapy carbapenem-sparing regimen (empiric 88%, definitive 90%). Limitations include the retrospective design and the high rate of urinary infections. CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE Our study found no difference in clinical outcomes between nCP-CRE and CSE infections. Application of this study with future studies would help in determining optimal regimens for these infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ashita Debnath
- Department of Pharmacy, Strong Memorial Hospital, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Kelly E Pillinger
- Department of Pharmacy, Strong Memorial Hospital, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Alysa J Martin
- Department of Pharmacy, Strong Memorial Hospital, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - David Dobrzynski
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Andrew Cameron
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Stephanie Shulder
- Department of Pharmacy, Strong Memorial Hospital, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Cao W, Zhang J, Bian Z, Li L, Zhang S, Qin Y, Wan D, Jiang Z, Zhang R. Active Screening of Intestinal Colonization of Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae for Subsequent Bloodstream Infection in Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation. Infect Drug Resist 2022; 15:5993-6006. [PMID: 36262593 PMCID: PMC9576326 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s387615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To investigate the prevalence, risk factors of intestinal carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) colonization and bloodstream infection (BSI) caused by CRE in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) recipients. Methods We analyzed the clinical data of 185 patients with hematological malignancies who underwent allo-HSCT from May 2019 to December 2021. All patients received regular CRE monitoring by rectal swab during allo-HSCT, and some CRE strains were further identified for carbapenemase phenotypes. The rates, distribution and risk factors of CRE colonization, CRE-induced BSI were analyzed. Results CRE was detected in 44 of 185 recipients, with colonization rate of 23.8%. A total of 46 strains of CRE were isolated, including 22 Escherichia coli, 17 Klebsiella pneumoniae, three Klebsiella oxytoca, two Enterobacter hormaechei, and two other Enterobacteriaceae. Among the 19 strains identified with carbapenemase phenotypes, eight strains of E. coli produced metal β-lactamase, five K. pneumoniae produced serine carbapenemase, two K. pneumoniae produced metal β-lactamase, two K. oxytoca produced metal β-lactamase, a Citrobacter malonic acid-free produced metal β-lactamase and a Citrobacter freundii produced metal β-lactamase. In 10 patients developed with CRE-related BSI, the types and combined drug sensitivity of strains detected by rectal swab were highly consistent with blood culture. Multivariate analysis revealed that pulmonary infection, perianal infection and carbapenem application in the 3 months pre-transplant were independent risk factors for rectal CRE colonization, while rectal colonization with carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae (CR-KP) was an independent risk factor for CRE-induced BSI. The mortality rate within 30 days of CRE-related BSI was 50.0%, and patients receiving multi-drug therapy within 24 hours showed slightly lower mortality than that in the single-drug treatment group. Conclusion Allo-HSCT patients with CRE-induced BSI have poor prognosis, and CR-KP rectal colonization is an independent risk factor for CRE-related BSI. Rectal swab screening during allo-HSCT could provide early warning for later CRE-induced BSI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Weijie Cao
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jieyong Zhang
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhilei Bian
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Li Li
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Suping Zhang
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yang Qin
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dingming Wan
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhongxing Jiang
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ran Zhang
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China,Correspondence: Ran Zhang; Zhongxing Jiang, Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450002, People’s Republic of China, Tel +86 137 8359 0246; +86 185 3805 3607, Fax +86 370 66295122, Email ;
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Yi J, Kim KH. Identification and infection control of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales in intensive care units. Acute Crit Care 2021; 36:175-184. [PMID: 34380190 PMCID: PMC8435449 DOI: 10.4266/acc.2021.00409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections with multidrug-resistant organisms among patients in intensive care units (ICUs) are associated with high mortality. Among multidrug-resistant organisms, carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) harbor important pathogens for healthcare-associated infections, including pneumonia, bacteremia, and urinary tract infections. Risk factors for CRE colonization include underlying comorbid conditions, prior antibiotics exposure, prior use of healthcare facilities, device use, and longer ICU stay. The mortality rate due to invasive CRE infection is 22%–49%, and CRE colonization is associated with an approximately 10-fold increased risk of CRE infection. Infection control measures include hand hygiene, contact precautions, minimizing the use of devices, and environmental control. Additionally, implementing active surveillance of CRE carriage should be considered in ICU settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jongyoun Yi
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Busan, Korea.,Medical Research Institute, Pusan National University Hospital, Busan, Korea
| | - Kye-Hyung Kim
- Medical Research Institute, Pusan National University Hospital, Busan, Korea.,Department of Internal Medicine, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Busan, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Kim C, Kassu M, Smith KP, Kirby JE, Manetsch R. Pyrazole-Thiazole Core-Containing Analogs Exhibit Adjunctive Activity with Meropenem against Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE). ChemMedChem 2021; 16:2775-2780. [PMID: 34096189 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202100321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Pyrazole-thiazole core-containing compound KP-40 and 20 novel derivatives were designed and synthesized through traditional SAR analysis. These molecules displayed adjunctive activity with meropenem against Gram-negative bacteria evidenced by a range of fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC=0.5-0.25) and minimum adjunctive concentration (MAC=128-32 μM) values. Of this series of molecules, four compounds displayed notable adjunctive potential, with FIC and MAC values of 0.25 and 32 μM, respectively. Moreover, the solubility of these compounds was improved to an acceptable range. Further analysis using our "in house" permeation and efflux multi parameter optimization (PEMPO) algorithm revealed key physicochemical properties that may be critical for the development of active Gram-negative antibacterials. Taking PEMPO scores into consideration prior to executing synthesis of analogs may be a simple, yet rapid and effective strategy that can be used in conjunction with traditional SAR approaches to aid in the design of potent Gram-negative antibacterials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chungsik Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Mintesinot Kassu
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kenneth P Smith
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - James E Kirby
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Roman Manetsch
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02115, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02115, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Choi E, Lee SJ, Lee S, Yi J, Lee YS, Chang SY, Jeong HY, Joo Y. Comprehensive, multisystem, mechanical decolonization of Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus and Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriacease without the use of antibiotics. Medicine (Baltimore) 2021; 100:e23686. [PMID: 33545935 PMCID: PMC7837958 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000023686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Among multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs), Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE), and Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) have become major nosocomial pathogens that are endemic worldwide. If VRE/CRE are present as colonizing organisms but do not act as pathogens, these organisms do not cause symptoms and do not require antibiotic use. However, once gastrointestinal colonization with VRE/CRE occurs, it can persist for long periods and serve as a reservoir for transmission to other patients. Therefore, a breakthrough strategy to control the spread of MDRO colonization is needed. We herein introduce decolonization method, which is a comprehensive, multisystem, consecutive mechanical MDRO decolonization protocol that does not utilize antibiotics. Our protocol included: (1).. Mechanical evacuation using a glycerin enema, (2).. Replacement of the normal gut flora using daily lactobacillus ingestion, (3).. Skin hygiene cleansing using chlorhexidine, and (4).. Environmental cleansing by changing the bed sheets and clothing every day. These steps were repeated consecutively until the patient was released from quarantine. We conducted VRE/CRE tests every week. Because our protocol was a comprehensive and multisystem decolonization protocol, the cooperation of patients and/or caregivers was essential, and family support was important for patient care. Patients were divided into VRE and CRE groups and were subdivided into success and failure groups according to decolonization status. Thirty-two patients with VRE or CRE colonization were enrolled, and our protocol was performed. A total of 20 patients (62.5%) were successfully decolonized after repeated protocols. Univariate analysis revealed that patients with younger age, higher body mass index (BMI), shorter period of MDRO isolation without trial, and higher functional status showed significantly enhanced success rates with our decolonization protocol. This study presents the decolonization effects of a comprehensive, multisystem, mechanical decolonization protocol for VRE and CRE. Most importantly, our decolonization protocol does not use antibiotics and is thus not harmful. These results suggest an active decolonization trial to be performed as early as possible in patients with VRE or CRE colonization. This simple, easy-to-apply protocol can be used as 1 of the basic treatment options for MDROs infection or colonization, regardless of whether it requires antibiotic treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eunseok Choi
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
| | | | - Sangjee Lee
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
| | | | - Yeon Soo Lee
- Department of Radiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Prussing C, Snavely EA, Singh N, Lapierre P, Lasek-Nesselquist E, Mitchell K, Haas W, Owsiak R, Nazarian E, Musser KA. Nanopore MinION Sequencing Reveals Possible Transfer of bla KPC-2 Plasmid Across Bacterial Species in Two Healthcare Facilities. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:2007. [PMID: 32973725 PMCID: PMC7466660 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.02007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae are a major threat to global public health. Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC) is the most commonly identified carbapenemase in the United States and is frequently found on mobile genetic elements including plasmids, which can be horizontally transmitted between bacteria of the same or different species. Here we describe the results of an epidemiological investigation of KPC-producing bacteria at two healthcare facilities. Using a combination of short-read and long-read whole-genome sequencing, we identified an identical 44 kilobase plasmid carrying the bla KPC-2 gene in four bacterial isolates belonging to three different species (Citrobacter freundii, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli). The isolates in this investigation were collected from patients who were epidemiologically linked in a region in which KPC was uncommon, suggesting that the antibiotic resistance plasmid was transmitted between these bacterial species. This investigation highlights the importance of long-read sequencing in investigating the relatedness of bacterial plasmids, and in elucidating potential plasmid-mediated outbreaks caused by antibiotic resistant bacteria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Catharine Prussing
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Emily A. Snavely
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Navjot Singh
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Pascal Lapierre
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States
| | | | - Kara Mitchell
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Wolfgang Haas
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Rita Owsiak
- Maine Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Department of Health and Human Services, Augusta, ME, United States
| | - Elizabeth Nazarian
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Kimberlee A. Musser
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
He Z, Wang C, Liu B, Feng M, Wang Z. Successful Treatment of Serious Meningitis Caused by Extremely Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacter cloacae (MIC≥16mg/L) with i.v. Meropenem and i.v. Amikacin Plus Intraventricular Amikacin. Infect Drug Resist 2019; 12:3765-3770. [PMID: 31819558 PMCID: PMC6896918 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s224509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) meningitis are associated with poor outcomes and high mortality. Here, we report the first successful treatment case of serious meningitis caused by extremely carbapenem-resistant Enterobacter cloacae (minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of imipenem ≥16mg/L) with high-dose prolonged infusion of meropenem and i.v. amikacin plus intraventricular (IVT) amikacin. Case presentation A 17-year-old girl developed meningitis from an extremely carbapenem-resistant Enterobacter cloacae (MIC of imipenem ≥16mg/L) as a complication of the removal of a giant central neurocytoma located in bilateral and third ventricles. The patient received four surgeries (one tumor excision and three external ventricular drainages) and was treated with a 70 days course of antibiotics therapy during 100 days hospitalization. Finally, she was safely and successfully treated with the high-dose prolonged infusion of meropenem and i.v. amikacin plus IVT amikacin. Conclusion This case report shows the possibility of the antibiotic regimen of high-dose prolonged infusion of meropenem and i.v. amikacin plus IVT amikacin in the successful treatment of CRE meningitis (MIC of imipenem ≥16mg/L) especially when other antibiotics are unavailable or restricted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zheng He
- Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University (Qingdao), Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Chengcheng Wang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University (Qingdao), Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Bin Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University (Qingdao), Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Maoyan Feng
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University (Qingdao), Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhigang Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University (Qingdao), Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Balan GG, Rosca I, Ursu EL, Fifere A, Varganici CD, Doroftei F, Turin-Moleavin IA, Sandru V, Constantinescu G, Timofte D, Stefanescu G, Trifan A, Sfarti CV. Duodenoscope-Associated Infections beyond the Elevator Channel: Alternative Causes for Difficult Reprocessing. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24122343. [PMID: 31242689 PMCID: PMC6631070 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24122343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Duodenoscopes have been widely used for both diagnostic and therapeutic endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) procedures, but recently, numerous outbreaks of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDRO) infections have been reported which has led to extensive research for their possible causes. Consequently, the aim of this study is to search for possible duodenoscope surface damages that could provide an alternative and plausible source of infections. MATERIALS AND METHODS In order to assess both outer and inner surfaces, a duodenoscope was dismantled and samples were taken from the outer resin polymer and from the air/water, elevator, and working (biopsy) channels that were characterized by FTIR, DSC, TGA, AFM, SEM techniques and the antimicrobial activity were tested. RESULTS Alterations were noticed on both the coating and working channel polymers, with external alterations increasing progressively from the proximal sample to the distal sample near the tip of the scope. However, the results showed that the coating surface was still efficient against bacterial adhesion. Changes in surface texture and also morphological changes were shown. CONCLUSIONS The study describes the impact of routine procedural use and reprocessing cycles on the duodenoscope, showing that these may possibly make it susceptible to bacterial contamination and MDRO biofilm formation due to difficult reprocessing of the altered surfaces.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gheorghe G Balan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Faculty of Medicine, "Grigore T. Popa" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 University Street, 700115 Iași, Romania.
| | - Irina Rosca
- Centre of Advanced Research in Bionanoconjugates and Biopolymers (IntelCentru), ''Petru Poni'' Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 41A Grigore Ghica Vodă Alley, 700487 Iași, Romania.
| | - Elena-Laura Ursu
- Centre of Advanced Research in Bionanoconjugates and Biopolymers (IntelCentru), ''Petru Poni'' Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 41A Grigore Ghica Vodă Alley, 700487 Iași, Romania.
| | - Adrian Fifere
- Centre of Advanced Research in Bionanoconjugates and Biopolymers (IntelCentru), ''Petru Poni'' Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 41A Grigore Ghica Vodă Alley, 700487 Iași, Romania.
| | - Cristian-Dragos Varganici
- Centre of Advanced Research in Bionanoconjugates and Biopolymers (IntelCentru), ''Petru Poni'' Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 41A Grigore Ghica Vodă Alley, 700487 Iași, Romania.
| | - Florica Doroftei
- Centre of Advanced Research in Bionanoconjugates and Biopolymers (IntelCentru), ''Petru Poni'' Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 41A Grigore Ghica Vodă Alley, 700487 Iași, Romania.
| | - Ioana-Andreea Turin-Moleavin
- Centre of Advanced Research in Bionanoconjugates and Biopolymers (IntelCentru), ''Petru Poni'' Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 41A Grigore Ghica Vodă Alley, 700487 Iași, Romania.
| | - Vasile Sandru
- Department of Gastroenterology Research, Clinical Emergency Hospital of Bucharest, 8 Calea Floreasca, 014461 Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Gabriel Constantinescu
- Department of Gastroenterology Research, Clinical Emergency Hospital of Bucharest, 8 Calea Floreasca, 014461 Bucharest, Romania.
- Internal Medicine Department, Faculty of Medicine, "Carol Davila" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 37 Dionisie Lupu Street, 030167 Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Daniel Timofte
- Department of Gastroenterology, Faculty of Medicine, "Grigore T. Popa" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 University Street, 700115 Iași, Romania.
| | - Gabriela Stefanescu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Faculty of Medicine, "Grigore T. Popa" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 University Street, 700115 Iași, Romania.
| | - Anca Trifan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Faculty of Medicine, "Grigore T. Popa" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 University Street, 700115 Iași, Romania.
| | - Catalin Victor Sfarti
- Department of Gastroenterology, Faculty of Medicine, "Grigore T. Popa" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 University Street, 700115 Iași, Romania.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Kumar A, Mohapatra S, Bakhshi S, Mahapatra M, Sreenivas V, Das BK, Sood S, Kapil A. Rectal Carriage of Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae: A Menace to Highly Vulnerable Patients. J Glob Infect Dis 2018; 10:218-221. [PMID: 30581264 PMCID: PMC6276316 DOI: 10.4103/jgid.jgid_101_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Bloodstream infection (BSI) due to carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae (CRE) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with hematological malignancy. These patients receive chemotherapy during treatment, which lead to severe mucositis of gastrointestinal tract and myelosuppression. It was hypothesized that the gut colonizer translocate into the blood circulation causing BSI. Colonization rate with CRE among these patients in India is unknown. Aim: This study aims to determine the carriage rate of CRE in cancer patients. Setting and Design: A prospective study was conducted in a tertiary care hospital of India. Materials and Methods: Rectal swab of 93 patients were collected and processed as per the Center for Disease Control and Prevention protocol for detection of CRE. The isolate CREs were identified by standard phenotypic tests and confirmed for carbapenem resistance by disk diffusion test using carbapenem disk (imipenem, meropenem, doripenem, and ertapenem), Carba-NP test and modified Hodge test. Resistant to any of the carbapenem disc is considered as CRE. Results: A total of 86 isolates were detected from 93 patients. Seventy-six isolates were identified as CRE, and 10 isolates were Gram-positive cocci and other Gram-negative bacilli. Acute myeloid leukemia was the most common clinical presentation followed by acute lymphoid leukemia. Thirty-nine out of 93 patients were on chemotherapy. Sixty-seven out of 76 isolates of CRE were observed positive for carbapenemase production by Carba-NP test. Conclusion: This study highlights very high rate of CRE carriage among the hematological malignancy patients; who are highly vulnerable to infection. This confirms the need of infection control prevention activities among the hematological malignancy patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amarjeet Kumar
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. B. R. A. Institute Rotary Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Sarita Mohapatra
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. B. R. A. Institute Rotary Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Sameer Bakhshi
- Department of Medical oncology, Dr. B. R. A. Institute Rotary Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Manoranjan Mahapatra
- Department of Hematology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - V Sreenivas
- Department of Biostatistics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Bimal K Das
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. B. R. A. Institute Rotary Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Seema Sood
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. B. R. A. Institute Rotary Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Arti Kapil
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. B. R. A. Institute Rotary Hospital, New Delhi, India
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Bonomo RA, Burd EM, Conly J, Limbago BM, Poirel L, Segre JA, Westblade LF. Carbapenemase-Producing Organisms: A Global Scourge. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 66:1290-1297. [PMID: 29165604 PMCID: PMC5884739 DOI: 10.1093/cid/cix893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 335] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The dramatic increase in the prevalence and clinical impact of infections caused by bacteria producing carbapenemases is a global health concern. Carbapenemase production is especially problematic when encountered in members of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Due to their ability to readily spread and colonize patients in healthcare environments, preventing the transmission of these organisms is a major public health initiative and coordinated international effort are needed. Central to the treatment and control of carbapenemase-producing organisms (CPOs) are phenotypic (growth-/biochemical-dependent) and nucleic acid-based carbapenemase detection tests that identify carbapenemase activity directly or their associated molecular determinants. Importantly, bacterial isolates harboring carbapenemases are often resistant to multiple antibiotic classes, resulting in limited therapy options. Emerging agents, novel antibiotic combinations and treatment regimens offer promise for management of these infections. This review highlights our current understanding of CPOs with emphasis on their epidemiology, detection, treatment, and control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Bonomo
- Medical Service, Louis Stokes Cleveland Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
- Departments of Medicine, Pharmacology, Molecular Biology, and Microbiology, Case Western Reserve University and Research Service, CWRU-VA Center for Antimicrobial Resistance and Epidemiology (CARES), Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Eileen M Burd
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - John Conly
- Departments of Medicine, Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Microbiology, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Synder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, and Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Brandi M Limbago
- Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Laurent Poirel
- Medical and Molecular Microbiology Unit, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Science, University of Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Julie A Segre
- Microbial Genomics Section, Translational and Functional Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Lars F Westblade
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, New York, New York
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Ye Y, Xu L, Han Y, Chen Z, Liu C, Ming L. Mechanism for carbapenem resistance of clinical Enterobacteriaceae isolates. Exp Ther Med 2017; 15:1143-1149. [PMID: 29399114 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2017.5485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbapenemase-producing 'super bacteria', particularly NDM-1 and its variants, have become a major public health concern worldwide. The present study aimed to explore the molecular mechanism for carbapenem resistance of clinical Enterobacteriaceae isolates. Seventy-eight non-repeated Enterobacteriaceae strains resistant to any carbapenem were screened at the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University (Zhengzhou, China) between December 2011 and December 2015. Outer membrane porin (OMP) proteins were detected using SDS-PAGE. Carbapenemases, extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) and plasmid AmpC enzyme genes were detected using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR and SDS-PAGE demonstrated that 60.3% (47/78) of the strains produced carbapenemases, of which 33.3% (26/78) produced KPC-2 carbapenemase, suggesting that the strains resisted carbapenems primarily through carbapenemases. SDS-PAGE showed that the OMP proteins in the majority of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) strains were deleted or decreased compared with those in the sensitive strains. Of the 44 Klebsiella strains, 59.1% (26/44) did not express or expressed less OmpK35 or OmpK36. Among the 34 strains of other enterobacteria, 97.1% (33/34) did not express or expressed less OmpC or OmpF. Of all CRE strains, 35.9% (28/78) lost at least one OMP protein, indicating that the strains resisted carbapenems also by producing ESBLs and/or plasmid AmpC enzyme, as well as by losing OMP proteins. The resistance of clinically isolated CRE strains may primarily be attributed to the production of carbapenemases, and may also involve the deletion of OMP proteins or mutation of OMP genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yafei Ye
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450002, P.R. China
| | - Lijuan Xu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450002, P.R. China
| | - Yanping Han
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450002, P.R. China
| | - Zhe Chen
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450002, P.R. China
| | - Cailin Liu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450002, P.R. China
| | - Liang Ming
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450002, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
The emergence of carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae (CRE) in the United States represents a serious danger to people who are hospitalized and is associated with case mortality rates as high as 50 percent. CRE infections have limited treatment options and the potential to spread widely if prevention and transmission measures are not employed. Decreasing the impact of CRE requires coordinated efforts between nurses and other clinicians, as well as administrators, to improve patient outcomes.
Collapse
|
16
|
Palmore TN, Henderson DK. Managing transmission of carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae in healthcare settings: a view from the trenches. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 57:1593-9. [PMID: 23934166 DOI: 10.1093/cid/cit531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
In 2011, the National Institutes of Health Clinical Center experienced a cluster of infection and colonization caused by carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae among profoundly immunocompromised inpatients. This manuscript describes the approach and interventions that were implemented in an attempt to curtail the cluster. Interventions employed included engagement of all stakeholders involved in care of at-risk patients; detailed and frequent communication with hospital staff about issues relating to the outbreak; aggressive microbial surveillance; use of techniques that facilitate rapid identification of resistant organisms; rapid characterization of resistance mechanisms; whole-genome sequencing of outbreak isolates to characterize the spread and to investigate mechanisms of healthcare-associated spread; implementation of enhanced contact precautions for all infected or colonized patients; geographic and personnel cohorting; daily chlorhexidine gluconate baths; dedicating equipment to be used solely for cohorted patients and aggressive decontamination of equipment that had to be reused on uncohorted patients; monitoring adherence to infection control precautions, including unwavering attention to adherence to appropriate hand hygiene procedures; and attention to the details of environmental decontamination. In addition, the manuscript discusses some of the challenges associated with managing such an event, as well as a few of the unanticipated consequences associated with the aftermath of the case cluster.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tara N Palmore
- Hospital Epidemiology Service and the Office of the Deputy Director for Clinical Care, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | | |
Collapse
|