Inactivation of Three RG(S/T)GR Pentapeptide-Containing Negative Regulators of HetR Results in Lethal Differentiation of Anabaena PCC 7120

The filamentous cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 produces, during the differentiation of heterocysts, a short peptide PatS and a protein HetN, both containing an RGSGR pentapeptide essential for activity. Both act on the master regulator HetR to guide heterocyst pattern formation by controlling the binding of HetR to DNA and its turnover. A third small protein, PatX, with an RG(S/T)GR motif is present in all HetR-containing cyanobacteria. In a nitrogen-depleted medium, inactivation of patX does not produce a discernible change in phenotype, but its overexpression blocks heterocyst formation. Mutational analysis revealed that PatX is not required for normal intercellular signaling, but it nonetheless is required when PatS is absent to prevent rapid ectopic differentiation. Deprivation of all three negative regulators—PatS, PatX, and HetN—resulted in synchronous differentiation. However, in a nitrogen-containing medium, such deprivation leads to extensive fragmentation, cell lysis, and aberrant differentiation, while either PatX or PatS as the sole HetR regulator can establish and maintain a semiregular heterocyst pattern. These results suggest that tight control over HetR by PatS and PatX is needed to sustain vegetative growth and regulated development. The mutational analysis has been interpreted in light of the opposing roles of negative regulators of HetR and the positive regulator HetL.

Interactions between fibroblast growth factors and Notch regulate neuronal differentiation

The differentiation of precursor cells into neurons has been shown to be influenced by both the Notch signaling pathway and growth factor stimulation. In this study, the regulation of neuronal differentiation by these mechanisms was examined in the embryonic day 10 neuroepithelial precursor (NEP) population. By downregulating Notch1 expression and by the addition of a Delta1 fusion protein (Delta Fc), it was shown that signaling via the Notch pathway inhibited neuron differentiation in the NEP cells, in vitro. The expression of two of the Notch receptor homologs, Notch1 and Notch3, and the ligand Delta1 in these NEP cells was found to be influenced by a number of different growth factors, indicating a potential interaction between growth factors and Notch signaling. Interestingly, none of the growth factors examined promoted neuron differentiation; however, the fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) 1 and 2 potently inhibited differentiation. FGF1 and FGF2 upregulated the expression of Notch and decreased expression of Delta1 in the NEP cells. In addition, the inhibitory response of the cells to the FGFs could be overcome by downregulating Notch1 expression and by disrupting Notch cleavage and signaling by the ablation of the Presenilin1 gene. These results indicate that FGF1 and FGF2 act via the Notch pathway, either directly or indirectly, to inhibit differentiation. Thus, signaling through the Notch receptor may be a common regulator of neuronal differentiation within the developing forebrain.