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Sanchez-Guajardo V, Barnum C, Tansey M, Romero-Ramos M. Neuroimmunological processes in Parkinson's disease and their relation to α-synuclein: microglia as the referee between neuronal processes and peripheral immunity. ASN Neuro 2013; 5:113-39. [PMID: 23506036 PMCID: PMC3639751 DOI: 10.1042/an20120066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2012] [Revised: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of neuroinflammation and the adaptive immune system in PD (Parkinson's disease) has been the subject of intense investigation in recent years, both in animal models of parkinsonism and in post-mortem PD brains. However, how these processes relate to and modulate α-syn (α-synuclein) pathology and microglia activation is still poorly understood. Specifically, how the peripheral immune system interacts, regulates and/or is induced by neuroinflammatory processes taking place during PD is still undetermined. We present herein a comprehensive review of the features and impact that neuroinflamation has on neurodegeneration in different animal models of nigral cell death, how this neuroinflammation relates to microglia activation and the way microglia respond to α-syn in vivo. We also discuss a possible role for the peripheral immune system in animal models of parkinsonism, how these findings relate to the state of microglia activation observed in these animal models and how these findings compare with what has been observed in humans with PD. Together, the available data points to the need for development of dual therapeutic strategies that modulate microglia activation to change not only the way microglia interact with the peripheral immune system, but also to modulate the manner in which microglia respond to encounters with α-syn. Lastly, we discuss the immune-modulatory strategies currently under investigation in animal models of parkinsonism and the degree to which one might expect their outcomes to translate faithfully to a clinical setting.
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Key Words
- lymphocytes
- m1/m2 phenotype
- microglia
- neuroinflammation
- parkinson’s disease
- α-synuclein
- 6-ohda, 6-hydroxydopamine
- ad, alzheimer’s disease
- apc, antigen-presenting cell
- α-syn, α-synuclein
- bbb, brain–blood barrier
- bcg, bacille calmette–guérin
- bm, bone marrow
- cfa, complete freund’s adjuvant
- cm, conditioned media
- cns, central nervous system
- cox, cyclooxygenase
- cr, complement receptor
- csf, cerebrospinal fluid
- da, dopamine
- eae, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis
- ga, galatiramer acetate
- gdnf, glial-derived neurotrophic factor
- gfp, green fluorescent protein
- hla-dr, human leucocyte antigen type dr
- ifnγ, interferon γ
- igg, immunoglobulin g
- il, interleukin
- inos, inducible nitric oxide synthase
- lamp, lysosome-associated membrane protein
- lb, lewy body
- lps, lipopolysaccharide
- mhc, major histocompatibility complex
- mptp, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine
- nfκb, nuclear factor κb
- nk, natural killer
- no, nitric oxide
- pd, parkinson’s disease
- pet, positron-emission tomography
- prp, prion protein
- raav, recombinant adeno-associated virus
- rns, reactive nitrogen species
- ros, reactive oxygen species
- sn, substantia nigra
- snp, single nucleotide polymorphism
- tcr, t-cell receptor
- tgfβ, tumour growth factor β
- th, tyrosine hydroxylase
- th1, t helper 1
- tlr, toll-like receptor
- tnf, tumour necrosis factor
- treg, regulatory t-cell
- vip, vasoactive intestinal peptide
- wt, wild-type
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanesa Sanchez-Guajardo
- *CNS Disease Modeling Group, Department of Biomedicine, Ole Worms Allé 3,
Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Christopher J. Barnum
- †Department of Physiology, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
30233, U.S.A
| | - Malú G. Tansey
- †Department of Physiology, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
30233, U.S.A
| | - Marina Romero-Ramos
- *CNS Disease Modeling Group, Department of Biomedicine, Ole Worms Allé 3,
Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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Fernández-Martínez A, Mollá B, Mayoral R, Boscá L, Casado M, Martín-Sanz P. Cyclo-oxygenase 2 expression impairs serum-withdrawal-induced apoptosis in liver cells. Biochem J 2006; 398:371-80. [PMID: 16800815 PMCID: PMC1559469 DOI: 10.1042/bj20060780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We have investigated the mechanism of COX-2 (cyclo-oxygenase 2)-dependent inhibition of apoptosis in liver, a key pathway underlying proliferative actions of COX-2 in liver cancers, cirrhosis, chronic hepatitis C infection and regeneration after partial hepatectomy. Stable expression of COX-2 in CHL (Chang liver) cells induced proliferation, with an increase in the proportion of cells in S-phase, but no other significant changes in cell-cycle distribution. This was associated with a marked inhibition of the apoptotic response to serum deprivation, an effect mimicked by treating empty-vector-transfected control cells (CHL-V cells) with prostaglandin E2 and prevented in COX-2-expressing cells (CHL-C cells) treated with selective inhibitors of COX-2. Serum-deprived CHL-V cells displayed several indicators of activation of intrinsic apoptosis: caspases 9 and 3 activated within 6 h and caspase 8 within 18 h, Bax expression was induced, cytochrome c was released to the cytosol, and PARP-1 [poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1] cleavage was evident in nuclei. COX-2 expression blocked these events, concomitant with reduced expression of p53 and promotion of Akt phosphorylation, the latter indicating activation of survival pathways. CHL cells were resistant to stimulation of the extrinsic pathway with anti-Fas antibody. Moreover, in vivo expression of GFP (green fluorescent protein)-labelled COX-2 in mice by hydrodynamics-based transient transfection conferred resistance to caspase 3 activation and apoptosis induced by stimulation of Fas.
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Key Words
- apoptosis
- cyclo-oxygenase (cox)
- hepatocyte
- hydrodynamic transfection
- liver
- prostaglandin
- aa, arachidonic acid
- alt, alanine aminotransferase
- chl, chang liver
- chl-c cell, cyclo-oxygenase-2-expressing chl cell
- chl-v cell, empty-vector-transfected control chl cell
- cox, cyclo-oxygenase
- coxib, selective cox-2 inhibitor
- dfu, 5,5-dimethyl-3-(3-fluorophenyl)-4-(4-methylsulfonyl)phenyl-2(5h)-furanone
- dmem, dulbecco's modified eagle's medium
- fbs, foetal bovine serum
- gfp, green fluorescent protein
- hcc, hepatocellular carcinoma
- iap, inhibitor of apoptosis
- nf-κb, nuclear factor κb
- parp-1, poly(adp-ribose) polymerase 1
- pg, prostaglandin
- pi, propidium iodide
- pi3k, phosphoinositide 3-kinase
- rt, reverse transcription
- sp1, specificity protein 1
- tnf, tumour necrosis factor
- tunel, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dutp nick-end labelling
- xiap, x-linked iap
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Affiliation(s)
- Amalia Fernández-Martínez
- *Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CSIC), Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Belén Mollá
- †Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia (CSIC), Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - Rafael Mayoral
- *Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CSIC), Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Lisardo Boscá
- *Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CSIC), Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Marta Casado
- †Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia (CSIC), Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - Paloma Martín-Sanz
- *Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CSIC), Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (email )
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Fuentes-Prior P, Salvesen G. The protein structures that shape caspase activity, specificity, activation and inhibition. Biochem J 2004; 384:201-32. [PMID: 15450003 PMCID: PMC1134104 DOI: 10.1042/bj20041142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 609] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2004] [Revised: 08/31/2004] [Accepted: 09/27/2004] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The death morphology commonly known as apoptosis results from a post-translational pathway driven largely by specific limited proteolysis. In the last decade the structural basis for apoptosis regulation has moved from nothing to 'quite good', and we now know the fundamental structures of examples from the initiator phase, the pre-mitochondrial regulator phase, the executioner phase, inhibitors and their antagonists, and even the structures of some substrates. The field is as well advanced as the best known of proteolytic pathways, the coagulation cascade. Fundamentally new mechanisms in protease regulation have been disclosed. Structural evidence suggests that caspases have an unusual catalytic mechanism, and that they are activated by apparently unrelated events, depending on which position in the apoptotic pathway they occupy. Some naturally occurring caspase inhibitors have adopted classic inhibition strategies, but other have revealed completely novel mechanisms. All of the structural and mechanistic information can, and is, being applied to drive therapeutic strategies to combat overactivation of apoptosis in degenerative disease, and underactivation in neoplasia. We present a comprehensive review of the caspases, their regulators and inhibitors from a structural and mechanistic point of view, and with an aim to consolidate the many threads that define the rapid growth of this field.
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Key Words
- apoptosis
- caspase
- inhibitor
- inhibitor of apoptosis protein (iap)
- protease
- zymogen
- alps, autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome
- apaf-1, apoptotic protease activating factor-1
- asc/pycard, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a card/pyd- and card-containing molecule
- bir, baculoviral iap repeat
- cad, caspase-activated dnase
- card, caspase-recruitment domain
- carp, caspase-associated ring protein
- ced, cell death-defective
- clarp, caspase-like apoptosis-regulatory protein
- cradd/raidd, caspase-2 and ripk1 domain-containing adaptor with death domain/rip-associated protein with a death domain
- crma, cytokine response modifier a
- dd, death domain
- ded, death effector domain
- dff, dna fragmentation factor
- diablo, direct iap-binding protein with low pi
- diap1, drosophila inhibitor of apoptosis 1
- disc, death-inducing signalling complex
- dronc, drosophila nedd2-like caspase
- fadd, fas (tnfrsf6)-associated via death domain
- flice, fadd-like ice
- flip, flice inhibitory protein
- iap, inhibitor of apoptosis protein
- ibm, iap binding motif
- icad, inhibitor of cad
- ice, interleukin-1β-converting enzyme
- ipaf/clan, ice-protease-activating factor/card, lrr and nacht-containing protein
- lrr, leucine-rich repeat
- nacht, ntpase-domain named after naip, ciita, het-e and tp1
- nalp1, nacht, lrr and pyrin domain containing 1
- nbd, nucleotide-binding domain
- nf-κb, nuclear factor-κb
- nod, nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain-containing protein
- parp, poly(adp-ribose) polymerase
- pidd, p53-induced protein with a death domain
- rick/cardiak, rip-like interacting clarp kinase/card-containing ice-associated kinase
- ring, really interesting new gene
- rip, receptor-interacting protein
- serpin, serine protease inhibitor
- smac, second mitochondrial activator of caspases
- tfpi, tissue factor pathway inhibitor
- tlr, toll-like receptor
- tnf, tumour necrosis factor
- tradd, tnfrsf1a-associated via death domain
- traf, tnf receptor-associated factor
- trail, tnf-related apoptosis-inducing ligand
- xiap/birc4, x-linked iap/baculoviral iap repeat-containing 4
- p1, p2, …pn and p1′, p2′, …pm′ designate the side chains in substrates and inhibitors in the n- and c-terminal direction respectively from the p1–p1′ scissile peptide bond
- s1, s2, …sn and s1′, s2′, …sm′ refer to the cognate pockets on the protease that accept these side chains [1]
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Fuentes-Prior
- *Abteilung Strukturforschung, Max-Planck-Institut für Biochemie, Am Klopferspitz 18a, D82152, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany and Cardiovascular Research Center, Sant Antoni Ma. Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Guy S. Salvesen
- †The Program in Apoptosis and Cell Death Research, Burnham Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, U.S.A
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Abstract
Two members of the NF-kappaB (nuclear factor kappaB)/Rel transcription factor family, NF-kappaB1 and NF-kappaB2, are produced as precursor proteins, NF-kappaB1 p105 and NF-kappaB2 p100 respectively. These are proteolytically processed by the proteasome to produce the mature transcription factors NF-kappaB1 p50 and NF-kappaB2 p52. p105 and p100 are known to function additionally as IkappaBs (inhibitors of NF-kappaB), which retain associated NF-kappaB subunits in the cytoplasm of unstimulated cells. The present review focuses on the latest advances in research on the function of NF-kappaB1 and NF-kappaB2 in immune cells. NF-kappaB2 p100 processing has recently been shown to be stimulated by a subset of NF-kappaB inducers, including lymphotoxin-beta, B-cell activating factor and CD40 ligand, via a novel signalling pathway. This promotes the nuclear translocation of p52-containing NF-kappaB dimers, which regulate peripheral lymphoid organogenesis and B-lymphocyte differentiation. Increased p100 processing also contributes to the malignant phenotype of certain T- and B-cell lymphomas. NF-kappaB1 has a distinct function from NF-kappaB2, and is important in controlling lymphocyte and macrophage function in immune and inflammatory responses. In contrast with p100, p105 is constitutively processed to p50. However, after stimulation with agonists, such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha and lipopolysaccharide, p105 is completely degraded by the proteasome. This releases associated p50, which translocates into the nucleus to modulate target gene expression. p105 degradation also liberates the p105-associated MAP kinase (mitogen-activated protein kinase) kinase kinase TPL-2 (tumour progression locus-2), which can then activate the ERK (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase)/MAP kinase cascade. Thus, in addition to its role in NF-kappaB activation, p105 functions as a regulator of MAP kinase signalling.
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Key Words
- iκb kinase (ikk)
- nuclear factor κb (nf-κb)
- p100
- p105
- toll-like receptor (tlr)
- tumour progression locus-2 (tpl-2)
- abin, a20-binding inhibitor of nuclear factor κb
- baff, b-cell activating factor
- bmdm, bone-marrow-derived macrophage
- βtrcp, β-transducin repeat-containing protein
- cox-2, cyclo-oxygenase-2
- dc, dendritic cell
- dd, death domain
- dif, dorsal-related immunity factor
- ebna1, ebv nuclear antigen 1
- ebv, epstein–barr virus
- erk, extracellular-signal-regulated kinase
- fn14, fibroblast-growth-factor-inducible 14
- gc, germinal centre
- gm-csf, granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor
- grr, glycine-rich region
- gsk, glycogen synthase kinase
- htlv-1, human t-cell leukaemia virus type 1
- ifnβ, interferon-β
- iκb, inhibitor of nuclear factor κb
- ikk, iκb kinase
- il, interleukin
- imd, immune deficiency
- jnk, c-jun n-terminal kinase
- lmp1, latent membrane protein 1
- lps, lipopolysaccharide
- ltβr, lymphotoxin-β receptor
- map kinase, mitogen-activated protein kinase
- map 3-kinase, map kinase kinase kinase
- mef, mouse embryo fibroblast
- mek, map kinase/erk kinase
- mip, macrophage inflammatory protein
- nemo, nuclear factor κb essential modulator
- nf-κb, nuclear factor κb
- nik, nf-κb-inducing kinase
- pest region, polypeptide sequence enriched in proline (p), glutamic acid (e), serine (s) and threonine (t)
- pgrp-lc, peptidoglycan recognition protein lc
- rankl, receptor activator of nf-κb ligand
- rhd, rel homology domain
- scf, skp1/cul1/f-box
- th1, t-helper 1
- th2, t-helper 2
- tlr, toll-like receptor
- tnf, tumour necrosis factor
- tpl-2, tumour progression locus-2
- traf, tnf-receptor-associated factor
- tweak, tnf-like weak inducer of apoptosis
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Affiliation(s)
- Sören Beinke
- Division of Immune Cell Biology, MRC National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, London NW7 1AA, U.K
| | - Steven C. Ley
- Division of Immune Cell Biology, MRC National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, London NW7 1AA, U.K
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