Oligodendrocytes in central nervous system diseases: the effect of cytokine regulation

Cytokines including tumor necrosis factor, interleukins, interferons, and chemokines are abundantly produced in various diseases. As pleiotropic factors, cytokines are involved in nearly every aspect of cellular functions such as migration, survival, proliferation, and differentiation. Oligodendrocytes are the myelin-forming cells in the central nervous system and play critical roles in the conduction of action potentials, supply of metabolic components for axons, and other functions. Emerging evidence suggests that both oligodendrocytes and oligodendrocyte precursor cells are vulnerable to cytokines released under pathological conditions. This review mainly summarizes the effects of cytokines on oligodendrocyte lineage cells in central nervous system diseases. A comprehensive understanding of the effects of cytokines on oligodendrocyte lineage cells contributes to our understanding of central nervous system diseases and offers insights into treatment strategies.

Functional role of IL-19 in a mouse model of L-arginine-induced pancreatitis and related lung injury

IL-19 is a member of IL-10 family and is mainly produced by macrophages. Acute pancreatitis (AP) is an inflammatory disease characterized by acinar cell injury and necrosis. In the present study, the role of IL-19 in AP and AP-associated lung injury in mice was explored using L-arginine-induced pancreatitis. Experimental pancreatitis was induced by intraperitoneal injection of L-arginine in wild-type (WT) and IL-19 gene-deficient (IL-19 KO) mice. Among the mice treated with L-arginine, the serum amylase level was significantly increased in the IL-19 KO mice, and interstitial edema, analyzed using hematoxylin and eosin-stained sections, was aggravated mildly in IL-19 KO mice compared with WT mice. Furthermore, the mRNA expression of tumor necrosis factor-α was significantly upregulated in IL-19 KO mice treated with L-arginine compared with WT mice treated with L-arginine. IL-19 mRNA was equally expressed in the pancreases of both control and L-arginine-treated WT mice. The conditions of lung alveoli were then evaluated in WT and IL-19 KO mice treated with L-arginine. In mice with L-arginine-induced pancreatitis, the alveolar area was remarkedly decreased, and expression of lung myeloperoxidase was significantly increased in IL-19 KO mice compared with WT mice. In the lungs, the mRNA expression of IL-6 and inducible nitric oxide synthase was significantly increased in IL-19 KO mice compared with WT mice. In summary, IL-19 was proposed to alleviate L-arginine-induced pancreatitis by regulating TNF-α production and to protect against AP-related lung injury by inhibiting neutrophil migration.

NF-κB affected the serum levels of TNF-α and IL-1β via activation of the MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway in rat model of acute pulmonary microthromboembolism

Pulmonary thromboembolism caused by thrombi blocking major pulmonary artery and its branches, is a frequently encountered phenomenon and an important cause of high morbidity and mortality in lung diseases and may develop into persistent pulmonary hypertension (PH). Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway had been reported participated in the formation and development of PH by promoting inflammatory response. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of NF-κB activation on the serum levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in acute pulmonary microthromboembolism (APMTE) rats. Rats were randomized into five groups. APMTE group received jugular vein injection of autologous thrombus, while control group rats received normal saline injection. Pulmonary hemodynamic parameters were measured through ECHO-guided transthoracic puncture. Pulmonary vascular morphological changes were analyzed by HE. The expression changes of NF-κB and serum TNF-α、IL-1β levels were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Protein expression of the MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway including p-IκBα, p-p38 MAPK, p-NF-κB p65, IκBα, p38 MAPK, and NF-κB p65 was determined using western blot analysis. Compared with control group, the expression of NF-κB in lung tissue and the levels of serum TNF-α and IL-1β rats were higher, a significant reduction in IκBα and elevation in the phosphorylation of IκBα, p38 MAPK, and NF-κB p65 were found in APMTE group rats. And UK administration reversed the APMTE-induced increase in TNF-α, IL-1β, p-IκBα, p-MAPK, and p-NF-κB protein. Furthermore, the levels of NF-κB, TNF-α, and IL-1β were positively correlated with mean pulmonary artery. And the levels of TNF-α and IL-1β were positively correlated with NF-κB. These findings suggest that the activation of MAPK/NF-κB pathway as a critical driver of increasing TNF-α and IL-1β level in APMTE rats and UK exerted protective effects against APMTE-induced PH may be related to the downregulation of the MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Comparison of Minced Cartilage Implantation with Autologous Chondrocyte Transplantation in an In Vitro Inflammation Model

The current gold standard to treat large cartilage defects is autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT). As a new surgical method of cartilage regeneration, minced cartilage implantation (MCI) is increasingly coming into focus. The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of chondrogenesis between isolated and cultured chondrocytes compared to cartilage chips in a standardized inflammation model with the proinflammatory cytokine TNFα. Articular chondrocytes from bovine cartilage were cultured according to the ACT method to passage 3 and transferred to spheroid culture. At the same time, cartilage was fragmented (<1 mm3) to produce cartilage chips. TNFα (20 ng/mL) was supplemented to simulate an inflammatory process. TNFα had a stronger influence on the passaged chondrocytes compared to the non-passaged ones, affecting gene expression profiles differently between isolated chondrocytes and cartilage chips. MCI showed less susceptibility to TNFα, with reduced IL-6 release and less impact on inflammation markers. Biochemical and histological analyses supported these findings, showing a greater negative influence of TNFα on the passaged pellet cultures compared to the unpassaged cells and MCI constructs. This study demonstrated the negative influence of TNFα on chondrogenesis in a chondrocyte spheroid culture and cartilage fragment model. Passaged chondrocytes are more sensitive to cytokine influences compared to non-passaged cells and chondrons. This suggests that MCI may have superior regeneration potential in osteoarthritic conditions compared to ACT. Further investigations are necessary for the translation of these findings into clinical practice.

PDGFRβ-Antagonistic Affibody-Mediated Tumor-Targeted Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha for Enhanced Radiotherapy in Lung Cancer

The morbidity and mortality of lung cancer are still the highest among all malignant tumors. Radiotherapy plays an important role in clinical treatment of lung cancer. However, the effect of radiotherapy is not ideal due to the radiation resistance of tumor tissues. Abnormalities in tumor vascular structure and function affect blood perfusion, and oxygen transport is impeded, making tumor microenvironment hypoxic. Tumor hypoxia is the major cause of radiotherapy resistance. By promoting tumor vessel normalization and enhancing vascular transport function, tumor hypoxia can be relieved to reduce radiotherapy resistance and increase tumor radiotherapy sensitivity. In our previous study, a pericytes-targeted tumor necrosis factor alpha (named Z-TNFα) was first constructed and produced by genetically fusing the platelet-derived growth factor receptor β (PDGFRβ)-antagonistic affibody (ZPDGFRβ) to the TNFα, and the Z-TNFα induced normalization of tumor vessels and improved the delivery of doxorubicin, enhancing tumor chemotherapy. In this study, the tumor vessel normalization effect of Z-TNFα in lung cancer was further clarified. Moreover, the tumor hypoxia improvement and radiosensitizing effect of Z-TNFα were emphatically explored in vivo. Inspiringly, Z-TNFα specifically accumulated in Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) tumor graft and relieved tumor hypoxia as well as inhibited HIF-1α expression. As expected, Z-TNFα significantly increased the effect of radiotherapy in mice bearing LLC tumor graft. In conclusion, these results demonstrated that Z-TNFα is also a promising radiosensitizer for lung cancer radiotherapy.

Japanese Encephalitis Outbreak in Young Adults of Bastar District in Chhattisgarh: A Short Observational Study

Background Instant infections in children due to acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) were reported in a tribal district of Bastar in Chattisgarh, India, between August 2018 and August 2019. Objective The study was conducted to explore the possibility of a viral cause indicating an outbreak. Methods Clinical surveys and serological investigation tests were conducted to identify the viral etiology. The Bastar area in Chhattisgarh reported factors such as paddy fields near homes, a high pig-to-cattle ratio, a significant presence of Culex vishnui mosquitoes, low socioeconomic status, and a lack of health awareness among the tribal people. Result This study, conducted at the Late Baliram Kashyap Memorial Government Medical College in Jagdalpur, Bastar, Chhattisgarh, India, analyzed 128 samples from fever cases out of 213 patients visiting the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) testing center. Among these samples, 71 cases exhibited AES, and subsequent JEV IgM ELISA testing identified 18 cases as JEV-positive, signifying recent JEV infections. Notably, the overwhelming majority (94.44%) of JEV-positive patients were under 16 years old, highlighting the heightened vulnerability of children to JEV illness in the Bastar region. Although male patients accounted for 61.11% of the JEV-positive cases compared to 38.88% of female patients, statistical analysis revealed that this gender disparity was not statistically significant (p-value = 0.18). Conclusion The study emphasizes the significance of identifying the etiology and delivering evidence-based care to patients with AES. Improved diagnosis and management of AES may result from a greater comprehension of the advantages and disadvantages associated with the application and administration of common laboratory and diagnostic algorithms.

Changes in the Composition of Unstimulated and Stimulated Saliva Due to Chewing Sour Cherry Gum and a Toothbrush Change

BACKGROUND

Our previous studies demonstrated that sour cherry anthocyanins (AC) reduce the salivary count of Streptococcus mutans and inhibit salivary amylase activity within 30 minutes after chewing AC gum. AC gum and changing toothbrushes after scaling reduced the Gram-negative species in the unstimulated salivary microbiota. The present study examined the effect of AC gums on salivary factors, including changes in microbiome.

METHODS

The study was conducted over three weeks with two groups; young adults (18-30) and adults (30-45). Ten participants changed their toothbrushes, while the other 10 participants did not change after the control period. After scaling, all participants received three doses of AC gum daily. The salivary mRNA and protein levels of cytokines, mucins, melatonin, and the microbiota of unstimulated and stimulated saliva were determined by polymerase chain reaction, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and 16S rRNA gene sequencing.

RESULTS

Significantly higher levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), mucin5B (MUC5B), mucin7 (MUC7), and melatonin were detected in stimulated saliva. Correlation analysis of these factors with the microbiota showed positive correlations with the genera Lachnospiraceae, Eikenella, Saccharibacteria_(TM7), Streptococcus, Prevotella, and Haemophilus.

CONCLUSIONS

AC chewing gum has a beneficial effect on the composition of the oral microbiome, and toothbrush replacement leads to changes in the levels of salivary pro-inflammatory cytokines.

NOTCH2 sensitizes the chondrocyte to the inflammatory response of tumor necrosis factor α

Notch regulates the immune and inflammatory response and has been associated with the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis in humans and preclinical models of the disease. Notch2tm1.1Ecan mice harbor a NOTCH2 gain-of-function and are sensitized to osteoarthritis, but the mechanisms have not been explored. We examined the effects of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) in chondrocytes from Notch2tm1.1Ecan mice and found that NOTCH2 enhanced the effect of TNFα on Il6 and Il1b expression. Similar results were obtained in cells from a conditional model of NOTCH2 gain-of-function, Notch22.1Ecan mice, and following the expression of the NOTCH2 intracellular domain in vitro. Recombination signal-binding protein for immunoglobulin Kappa J region partners with the NOTCH2 intracellular domain to activate transcription; in the absence of Notch signaling it inhibits transcription, and Rbpj inactivation in chondrocytes resulted in Il6 induction. Although TNFα induced IL6 to a greater extent in the context of NOTCH2 activation, there was a concomitant inhibition of Notch target genes Hes1, Hey1, Hey2, and Heyl. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay demonstrated displacement of recombination signal-binding protein for immunoglobulin Kappa J region from DNA binding sites by TNFα explaining the increased Il6 expression and the concomitant decrease in Notch target genes. NOTCH2 enhanced the effect of TNFα on NF-κB signaling, and RNA-Seq revealed increased expression of pathways associated with inflammation and the phagosome in NOTCH2 overexpressing cells in the absence and presence of TNFα. Collectively, NOTCH2 has important interactions with TNFα resulting in the enhanced expression of Il6 and inflammatory pathways in chondrocytes.

Assessment of serum concentration and urinary excretion of tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 and 2 and their potential as markers of immunoglobulin A nephropathy activity

BACKGROUND

Tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) and 2 (TNFR2) can be cleaved from the cell surface and circulate alone or in combination with tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). These soluble receptors may play a key role in regulating the inflammatory response.

OBJECTIVES

The study aimed to evaluate the role of TNFRs in regulating the inflammatory response in immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study included 26 patients with newly diagnosed and biopsy-confirmed IgAN and 20 healthy controls. Study material included blood and fresh urine collected the morning before kidney biopsy and therapy. The serum concentrations of TNFR1 (STNFR1) and TNFR2 (STNFR2) and urinary excretion of TNFR1 (UTNFR1) and TNFR2 (UTNFR2) were determined with immunoassay. Subsequently, the data were evaluated statistically.

RESULTS

The STNFR1 and STNFR2 levels were higher in IgAN patients than in healthy subjects (4747.87 pg/mL and 2817.62 pg/mL compared to 2755.68 pg/mL (95% CI: from -2948.41 to -1035.97; p = 0.001) and 1437.83 pg/mL (95% CI: from -1958.50 to -419.60; p = 0.001). The power of the test was 98.5% for STNFR1 and 96% for STNFR2. Urinary concentrations only increased for TNFR1 (3551.29 compared to 2338.95 pg/mg of creatinine (Cr) (95% CI: from -2247.03 to -177.66; p = 0.023). The STNFR1 marker was characterized by a sensitivity of 73.08% and a specificity of 90.00% (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that TNFR1 and TNFR2 are good markers of TNF-α pathway activation in IgAN patients.

The neuroprotective effects of Chalcones from Ashitaba on cuprizone-induced demyelination via modulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and tumor necrosis factor α

INTRODUCTION

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. However, the limitations of available therapeutic strategies are frustrating, both in terms of their low efficacy and multiple side effects. Previous studies showed that natural compounds such as Chalcones possess neuroprotective effects on neurodegenerative disorders. However, few studies have so far been published on the potential effects of Chalcones on treating demyelinating disease. The present study was designed to investigate the effects of Chalcones from Ashitaba (ChA) on cuprizone-induced noxious changes in the C57BL6 mice model of MS.

METHODS

The mice received normal diets (Control group: CNT), or Cuprizone-supplemented diets either without ChA (Cuprizone group: CPZ) or with low or high (300, 600 mg/kg/day) doses of ChA (ChA-treated groups: CPZ+ChA300/600). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) levels, demyelination scores in the corpus callosum (CC), and cognitive impairment were evaluated using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, histological, and Y-maze tests, respectively.

RESULTS

The findings showed that ChA Co-treatment significantly reduced the extent of demyelination in the CC and the serum and brain levels of TNFα in the ChA-treated groups compared to the CPZ group. Besides, treatment with a higher dose of ChA significantly improved the behavioral responses and BDNF levels in the serum and brain of the CPZ+ChA600 group when compared with the CPZ group.

CONCLUSION

The present study provided evidence for the neuroprotective effects of ChA on cuprizone-induced demyelination and behavioral dysfunction in C57BL/6 mice, possibly by modulating TNFα secretion and BDNF expression.

Expression of Apelin in Rotator Cuff Tears and Examination of Its Regulatory Mechanism: A Translational Study

OBJECTIVES

Inflammatory mediators play important roles in the pain associated with rotator cuff tears (RCTs), but their underlying mechanisms are unclear. Apelin, a neuropeptide, is upregulated under inflammatory conditions and possibly contributes to pain induced by rotator cuff tears. This translational study aimed to examine apelin expression and regulation by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in patients with RCT and in rat RCT models.

METHODS

Synovial tissues were harvested from the glenohumeral joints of the shoulders in 46 patients who underwent arthroscopic Bankart repair for recurrent shoulder dislocations (RSDs) or arthroscopic rotator cuff repair for RCTs. The harvested tissues were extracted and processed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Rats underwent sham or RCT surgery; the rotator cuff tissues were extracted 1, 7, 14, 28, and 56 days after surgery and analyzed for mRNA expression levels of the TNF-α and apelin using RT-PCR. The cultured rotator cuff cells (RCCs) were stimulated with TNF-α to examine their role in the regulation of apelin expression.

RESULTS

Apelin expression was higher in the RCT group than in the RSD group and significantly correlated with pain intensity. In rats, the expression was also higher in RCT. Apelin expression significantly increased during the acute and chronic phases in rats.

CONCLUSIONS

In cultured RCCs, apelin mRNA levels significantly increased after TNF-α stimulation. Apelin levels were regulated by TNF-α and were highly expressed in patients with RCT and rats in RCT models. Thus, apelin may be a new pain management target for RCTs.

TSG101 Physically Interacts with Linear Ubiquitin Chain Assembly Complex (LUBAC) and Upregulates the TNFα-Induced NF-κB Activation

Linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex (LUBAC) is a ubiquitin E3 ligase complex composed of HOIP, HOIL-1L, and SHARPIN that catalyzes the formation of linear/M1- linked ubiquitin chain. It has been shown to play a pivotal role in the nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling induced by proinflammatory stimuli. Here, we found that tumor susceptibility gene (TSG101) physically interacts with HOIP, a catalytic component of LUBAC, and potentiates LUBAC activity. Depletion of TSG101 expression by RNA interference decreased TNFα-induced linear ubiquitination and the formation of TNFα receptor 1 signaling complex (TNFRSC). Furthermore, TSG101 facilitated the TNFα-induced stimulation of the NF-κB pathway. Thus, we suggest that TSG101 functions as a positive modulator of HOIP that mediates TNFα-induced NF-κB signaling pathway.

Effect of Inflammatory Microenvironment on the Regenerative Capacity of Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells are increasingly being used in regenerative medicine as cell therapy targets, including in the treatment of burns and ulcers. The regenerative potential of AD-MSCs and some of their immunological properties are known from in vitro studies; however, in clinical applications, cells are used in non-ideal conditions and can behave differently in inflammatory environments, affecting the efficacy and outcome of therapy. Our aim was to investigate and map the pathways that the inflammatory microenvironment can induce in these cells. High-throughput gene expression assays were performed on AD-MSCs activated with LPS and TNFα. Analysis of RNA-Seq data showed that control, LPS-treated and TNFα-treated samples exhibited distinct gene expression patterns. LPS treatment increased the expression of 926 genes and decreased the expression of 770 genes involved in cell division, DNA repair, the cell cycle, and several metabolic processes. TNFα treatment increased the expression of 174 genes and decreased the expression of 383 genes, which are related to cell division, the immune response, cell proliferation, and differentiation. We also map the biological pathways by further investigating the most altered genes using the Gene Ontology and KEGG databases. Secreted cytokines, which are important in the immunological response, were also examined at the protein level, and a functional assay was performed to assess wound healing. Activated AD-MSC increased the secretion of IL-6, IL-8 and CXCL-10, and also the closure of wounds. AD-MSCs presented accelerated wound healing under inflammation conditions, suggesting that we could use this cell in clinical application.

A Tumor Microenvironment-Driven Network Regulated by STAT3 and p65 Negatively Controls the Enrichment of Cancer Stem Cells in Human HR+/HER2- Breast Cancer

Hormone receptor-positive and HER2-negative (HR+/HER2-; luminal A) tumors are prevalent in breast cancer. Our past studies demonstrated that "TME Stimulation" (estrogen + TNFα + EGF, representing three arms of the tumor microenvironment, TME) has enriched metastasis-forming cancer stem cells (CSCs) in HR+/HER2- human breast cancer cells. Here, following information obtained by RNAseq analyses of TME-stimulated CSCs and Non-CSCs, we found that TME Stimulation has induced the activation of S727-STAT3, Y705-STAT3, STAT1 and p65. Upon TME Stimulation, stattic (STAT3 inhibitor) usage demonstrated that Y705-STAT3 activation negatively controlled CSC enrichment and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) traits, while inducing CXCL8 (IL-8) and PD-L1 expression. However, STAT3 knock-down (siSTAT3) had no effect on these functions; in terms of CSC enrichment, p65 had down-regulatory roles that compensated for the loss of an entire STAT3 protein. Y705-STAT3 and p65 acted additively in reducing CSC enrichment, and Y705A-STAT3 variant + sip65 has enriched chemo-resistant CSCs. Clinical data analyses revealed an inverse correlation between Y705-STAT3 + p65 phosphorylation and CSC signature in luminal A patients, and connection to improved disease course. Overall, we find regulatory roles for Y705-STAT3 and p65 in TME-stimulated HR+/HER2- tumors, with the ability to limit CSC enrichment. These findings raise concerns about using inhibitors of STAT3 and p65 as therapeutic strategies in the clinic.

Mild heat stress-induced adaptive immune response in blood mononuclear cells and leukocytes from mesenteric lymph nodes of primiparous lactating Holstein cows

Heat stress negatively affects the metabolism and physiology of the bovine gut. However, it is not known whether heat stress induces an inflammatory response in mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN), the primary origin of gut immune cells, and thus contributes to inflammatory processes in the circulation. Therefore, our objective was to elucidate the effects of chronic heat stress on the systemic activation of acute-phase response in blood, proinflammatory cytokine production in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), and the activation of the toll-like receptor signaling (TLR) 2/4 pathway in MLN leucocytes and their chemokines and chemokine receptor profiles in Holstein cows. Primiparous Holstein cows (n = 30; 169 ± 9 d in milk) were exposed to a temperature-humidity index (THI) of 60 [16°C, 63% relative humidity (RH)] for 6 d. Thereafter, cows were evenly assigned to 3 groups: heat-stressed (HS; 28°C, 50% RH, THI = 76), control (CON; 16°C, 69% RH, THI = 60), or pair-feeding (PF; 16°C, 69% RH, THI = 60) for 7 d. On d 6, PBMC were isolated and on d 7 MLN. Plasma haptoglobin, TNFα, and IFNγ concentrations increased more in HS than CON cows. Concomitantly, TNFA mRNA abundance was higher in PBMC and MLN leucocytes of HS than PF cows, whereas IFNG mRNA abundance tended to be higher in MLN leucocytes of HS than PF cows, but not for chemokines (CCL20, CCL25) or chemokine receptors (ITGB7, CCR6, CCR7, CCR9). Furthermore, the TLR2 protein expression tended to be more abundant in MLN leucocytes of HS than PF cows. These results suggest that heat stress induced an adaptive immune response in blood, PBMC, and MLN leukocytes involving the acute-phase protein haptoglobin, proinflammatory cytokine production, and TLR2 signaling in MLN leucocytes. However, chemokines regulating the leucocyte trafficking between MLN and gut seem not to be involved in the adaptive immune response to heat stress.

Computational analysis to investigate the anti-rheumatic potential of plant-based small molecule inhibitor targeting tumor necrosis factor α

Objective: This study aimed to assess the anti-rheumatic potential of Dodonaea viscosa and to evaluate its bioactive small molecules for their beneficial effects in the management of rheumatoid arthritis. Methods: In vitro bioactivity assays were performed to assess the healing potential of D. viscosa and statistical analysis was performed by using the linear regression technique. In silico analysis was performed to identify the key inhibitors of the disease to target TNF-α. The plant extract was prepared using ethanol solvent via the Soxhlet method. Phytochemical and bioactivity testing was performed. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis was conducted for bioactive plant compounds. Disease-specific target was shortlisted by HUB gene analysis. Molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulations were run for validation of the results. Results: Phytochemical studies verified the presence of phenols, flavonoids, steroids, sterols, saponins, coumarins, tannins, and terpenoids. The significant antioxidant potential of plant extract was evaluated by the DPPH and Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) assays, while the anti-inflammatory potential was evaluated by the protein denaturation and Human Red Blood Cell (HRBC) membrane stabilization assays. In silico studies revealed that nine of the 480 compounds found in D. viscosa (ethanol extract) had drug-like properties. Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) was selected as a key disease gene through HUB gene analysis. Results of molecular docking and MD simulation analysis demonstrated that 4-(1-hydroxy-3-oxo-1H-isoindol-2-yl) benzoic acid (PubChemID 18873897), had the best binding affinity with TNF-α amongst all nine compounds. Conclusion: 4-(1-hydroxy-3-oxo-1H-isoindol-2-yl) benzoic acid (PubChemID 18873897), have the potential to be a good small molecule inhibitor of TNF-α against rheumatoid arthritis.

Bifunctional effect of the inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor α on megakaryopoiesis and platelet production

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Platelets are affected by many factors, such as infectious or aseptic inflammation, and different inflammatory states may induce either thrombocytopenia or thrombocytosis. Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) is an important inflammatory cytokine that has been shown to affect the activity of hematopoietic stem cells. However, its role in megakaryocyte (MK) development and platelet production remains largely unknown. This study aimed to investigate the effects of TNFα on MK and platelet generation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The ex vivo study with human CD34+ cells demonstrated that TNFα differentially modulated commitment toward the MK lineage. Specifically, a low concentration of 0.5 ng/ml TNFα promoted MK maturation, proplatelet formation, and platelet production, whereas a high concentration of 10 ng/ml or more TNFα exhibited a substantial inhibitory effect on MK and platelet production. The distinct effect of TNFα on MKs was mainly dependent on TNFα receptor 1. TNFα differentially regulated the MAPK-ERK1/2 signaling pathway and the cytoskeletal proteins cofilin and MLC2. The in vivo study with Balb/c mice indicated that low-dose or high-dose TNFα administration differentially affected short-term platelet recovery after bone marrow transplantation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study revealed distinct roles for TNFα in megakaryopoiesis and thrombopoiesis and may provide new insights regarding the treatment for platelet disorders.

Altered Thermal Behavior of Blood Plasma Proteome Related to Inflammatory Cytokines in Early Pregnancy Loss

Early pregnancy loss (EPL) is a relatively common pathology of which almost 50% of cases remain idiopathic. In the search for novel biomarkers, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is intensively used to characterize the thermodynamic behavior of blood plasma/serum proteome in health and disease. Herein, for the first time, we investigate the DSC denaturation profiles of blood plasma derived from patients suffering EPL compared to healthy pregnant and non-pregnant women. Data analysis reveals that 58% of the EPL thermograms differ significantly from those of healthy pregnant women. Thermal stabilization of a fraction of albumin-assigned transition with concomitant suppression of the major and enhancement of the globulin-assigned transition are characteristic features of EPL calorimetric profiles that could be used as a new indicator of a risk pregnancy. The presented results suggest an altered composition or intermolecular interactions of the plasma proteome of women with EPL. In addition, the alterations of the EPL thermograms correlate with the increased blood levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) and a higher prevalence of the polymorphism in the plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 (PAI-1) gene, suggesting an expression of an overall enhanced immune response. The concomitant changes in plasma thermograms confirm the potential of the DSC approach for distinguishing changes in the pathological state of the blood plasma proteome.

Chemokine Assay Matrix Defines the Potency of Human Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stromal Cells

Potency analysis of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) is required for their use in advanced clinical trials. Assay matrix strategy evaluating more than a single property of MSCs is an emerging strategy in potency analysis. Here we developed an assay matrix approach focusing on the secretory chemokine responses of MSCs using multiplex analytical method. MSCs’ innate fitness in secreting matrix of chemokines is correlated with their metabolic fitness in differential degrees. In addition, innately secreting chemokines are correlated among themselves in a unique pattern. MSC’s matrix chemokine responses to exogenous stimulation of IFNγ and/or TNFα are distinct. However, the combination of IFNγ and TNFα is superior than individual stimulations in eliciting robust and broad matrix chemokine responses of MSCs. Correlation matrix analysis has identified that chemokine responses to IFNγ and/or TNFα display unique correlative secretion patterns. MSC and peripheral blood mononuclear cells coculture analysis has identified the correlation matrix responses of chemokines that predicted immune suppression. In addition, MSC-mediated blocking of T-cell proliferation predominantly correlates with chemokines in an inverse manner. Knockdown of chemokines has demonstrated that MSC-sourced inherent chemokines do not actively play a role in T-cell suppression and thus are the bystander predictors of T-cell suppression. The present analysis of MSC’s matrix chemokine responses can be deployed in the advanced potency analysis of MSCs.

A Small Molecule Selected from a DNA-Encoded Library of Natural Products That Binds to TNF-α and Attenuates Inflammation In Vivo

Tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) inhibitors have shown great success in the treatment of autoimmune diseases. However, to date, approved drugs targeting TNF-α are restricted to biological macromolecules, largely due to the difficulties in using small molecules for pharmaceutical intervention of protein-protein interactions. Herein the power of a natural product-enriched DNA-encoded library (nDEL) is exploited to identify small molecules that interfere with the protein-protein interaction between TNF-α and the cognate receptor. Initially, to select molecules capable of binding to TNF-α , "late-stage" DNA modification method is applied to construct an nDEL library consisted of 400 sterically diverse natural products and pharmaceutically active chemicals. Several natural products, including kaempferol, identified not only show direct interaction with TNF-α, but also lead to the blockage of TNF-α/TNFR1 interaction. Significantly, kaempferol attenuates the TNF-α signaling in cells and reduces the 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetateinduced ear inflammation in mice. Structure-activity-relationship analyses demonstrate the importance of substitution groups at C-3, C-7, and C-4' of kaempferol. The nDEL hit, kaempferol, represents a novel chemical scaffold capable of specifically recognizing TNF-α and blocking its signal transduction, a promising starting point for the development of a small molecule TNF-α inhibitor for use in the clinical setting.

Epitope Mapping with Diethylpyrocarbonate Covalent Labeling-Mass Spectrometry

Antigen-antibody epitope mapping is essential for understanding binding mechanisms and developing new protein therapeutics. In this study, we investigate diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC) covalent labeling-mass spectrometry as a means of analyzing antigen-antibody interactions using the well-characterized model system of TNFα in complex with three different antibodies. Results show that residues buried in the epitope undergo substantial decreases in labeling, as expected. Interestingly, serine, threonine, and tyrosine residues at the edges of the epitope undergo unexpected increases in labeling. The increased labeling of these weakly nucleophilic residues is caused by the formation of hydrophobic pockets upon antibody binding that presumably increase local DEPC concentrations. Residues that are distant from the epitope generally do not undergo changes in labeling extent; however, some that do change experience variations in their local microenvironment due to side-chain reorganization or stabilization of the TNFα trimer that occurs upon binding. Overall, DEPC labeling of antigen-antibody complexes is found to depend on both changes in solvent exposure and changes to the residue microenvironment.

Tubular epithelial cell-to-macrophage communication forms a negative feedback loop via extracellular vesicle transfer to promote renal inflammation and apoptosis in diabetic nephropathy

Background: Macrophage infiltration around lipotoxic tubular epithelial cells (TECs) is a hallmark of diabetic nephropathy (DN). However, how these two types of cells communicate remains obscure. We previously demonstrated that LRG1 was elevated in the process of kidney injury. Here, we demonstrated that macrophage-derived, LRG1-enriched extracellular vesicles (EVs) exacerbated DN.

Methods: We induced an experimental T2DM mouse model with a HFD diet for four months. Renal primary epithelial cells and macrophage-derived EVs were isolated from T2D mice by differential ultracentrifugation. To investigate whether lipotoxic TEC-derived EV (EV_e) activate macrophages, mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) were incubated with EV_e. To investigate whether activated macrophage-derived EVs (EV_m) induce lipotoxic TEC apoptosis, EV_m were cocultured with primary renal tubular epithelial cells. Subsequently, we evaluated the effect of LRG1 in EV_e by investigating the apoptosis mechanism.

Results: We demonstrated that incubation of primary TECs of DN or HK-2 mTECs with lysophosphatidyl choline (LPC) increased the release of EV_e. Interestingly, TEC-derived EV_e activated an inflammatory phenotype in macrophages and induced the release of macrophage-derived EV_m. Furthermore, EV_m could induce apoptosis in TECs injured by LPC. Importantly, we found that leucine-rich α-2-glycoprotein 1 (LRG1)-enriched EV_e activated macrophages via a TGFβR1-dependent process and that tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-enriched EV_m induced apoptosis in injured TECs via a death receptor 5 (DR5)-dependent process.

Conclusion: Our findings indicated a novel cell communication mechanism between tubular epithelial cells and macrophages in DN, which could be a potential therapeutic target.

Preparation and characterization of a fully human monoclonal antibody specific for human tumor necrosis factor alpha

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) is an important inflammatory factor. It plays a cardinal role in inflammatory synovitis and articular matrix degradation, and is, therefore, a prime target for directed immunotherapy in autoimmune diseases. In this study, we screened and isolated the B cells secreting anti-TNFα antibody from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. The heavy-chain and light-chain sequences of the antibody were cloned and used to generate a stable Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line producing the antibody, which was named Haidalimumab. Haidalimumab showed a TNFα binding affinity comparable to that of the antibody Humira, which is the best TNF inhibitor on the market. Furthermore, Haidalimumab could effectively neutralize recombinant human tumor necrosis factor alpha (rhTNFα) toxicity in a C57BL/6 mouse model and showed significant therapeutic effect in a tumor necrosis factor transgenic (TNF-Tg) mouse arthritis model. In conclusion, we developed a high-affinity, fully human anti-TNFα antibody with low immunogenicity that could potentially have significant therapeutic applications in rheumatoid arthritis or other autoimmune diseases.

Abbreviations: ELISAenzyme linked immunosorbent assayRArheumatoid arthritisSDS-PAGEsodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresisrhTNFαrecombinant human tumor necrosis factor-alphaEC₅₀concentration for 50% of maximal effectTNF-Tg micetumor necrosis factor transgenic miceAMDactinomycin DMTTmethylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium bromidePBSphosphate‐buffered saline

Cinacalcet Targets the Neurokinin-1 Receptor and Inhibits PKCδ/ERK/P65 Signaling to Alleviate Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis

Objective: Inflammatory bowel disease is an immune-mediated chronic inflammatory disease of the gastrointestinal tract for which curative drugs are currently not available. This study was performed to assess the therapeutic effects of cinacalcet on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis. Methods: Primary macrophages obtained from bone marrow and the macrophage cell line RAW264.7 were used to examine the inhibitory effect of cinacalcet on cytokine production, the PKCδ/ERK/P65 signaling pathway, and NF-κB P65 translocation. Colitis was induced using DSS to assess the treatment effect of cinacalcet. Bioinformatics approaches were adopted to predict potential targets of cinacalcet, and a drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTs) assay was performed to confirm binding between cinacalcet and potential target. Results: In vivo analysis showed that cinacalcet reduced the disease activity score, prevented shortening of the colon, diminished inflammatory cell infiltration, and protected the structural integrity of the intestinal wall. Cinacalcet also reduced production of the inflammatory cytokines TNFα, IL-1β, and IL-6 in the colon and sera of mice with DSS-induced colitis. In vitro studies revealed that cinacalcet suppressed the translocation of P65 and inhibited production of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-6. Mechanistic studies revealed that the target of cinacalcet was neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1R) and their binding was confirmed by a DARTs assay. Furthermore, the inhibition of NK-κB P65 activation was found to occur via the suppression of PKCδ/ERK/P65 signaling mediated by cinacalcet. Conclusion: Cinacalcet inhibits the activation of NF-κB and reduces the production of inflammatory cytokines by suppressing the PKCδ/ERK/P65 signaling pathway via targeting NK1R, suggesting that it can be used to treat inflammatory diseases, particularly colitis.

Association of the Circulating Supar Levels with Inflammation, Fibrinolysis, and Outcome in Severe Burn Patients

BACKGROUND

Hyperfibrinolysis and pro/anti-inflammatory imbalance usually occur in the early stage of severe burns. Soluble urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR) is involved in fibrinolysis and inflammation. To date, the levels of circulating suPAR in non-survivors with severe burns remain unknown. This study aimed to investigate the early association between circulating suPAR levels and biomarkers of fibrinolysis, pro/anti-inflammatory, and prognosis.

METHODS

Sixty-four consecutive Chinese patients with severe burns and 26 healthy volunteers were enrolled in a prospective observational cohort. Clinical characteristics and laboratory data were collected prospectively. Blood samples were collected at 48 h post-burn, and suPAR and biomarkers of pro/anti-inflammatory and fibrinolysis were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Important indicators between non-survivors and survivors were compared. Linear regression analysis was performed to screen variables associated with suPAR. Logistic regression analysis and receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) analysis were performed to evaluate the prognostic value of suPAR.

RESULT

Compared with the control group, the circulating suPAR levels in the survivors (P < 0.001) and non-survivors (P = 0.017) were higher. Compared with survivors, non-survivors had lower circulating suPAR levels at 48 h post-burn, and they showed a higher degree of fibrinolysis (higher D-dimer) and a lower TNF-α/IL-10 ratio. According to linear regression analysis, the variables independently associated with a lower suPAR level were lower platelet factor 4 (PF-4), urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), and TNF-α/IL-10 levels and a higher D-dimer level. Logistic regression and ROC analyses indicated that a suPAR level ≤ 4.70 μg/L was independently associated with 30-day mortality.

CONCLUSION

Low circulating suPAR levels at 48 h post-burn in severe burn patients may reflect decreased TNF-α/IL-10 ratio and increased hyperfibrinolysis. suPAR can predict 30-day mortality in patients with severe burn.

Diversity and Regulation of Astrocyte Neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's Disease

Astrocytes contribute to brain development and homeostasis and support diverse functions of neurons. These cells also respond to the pathological processes in Alzheimer's disease (AD). There is still considerable debate concerning the overall contribution of astrocytes to AD pathogenesis since both the protective and harmful effects of these cells on neuronal survival have been documented. This review focuses exclusively on the neurotoxic potential of astrocytes while acknowledging that these cells can contribute to neurodegeneration through other mechanisms, for example, by lowered neurotrophic support. We identify reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), glutamate, and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 as molecules that can be directly toxic to neurons and are released by reactive astrocytes. There is also considerable evidence suggesting their involvement in AD pathogenesis. We further discuss the signaling molecules that trigger the neurotoxic response of astrocytes with a focus on human cells. We also highlight microglia, the immune cells of the brain, as critical regulators of astrocyte neurotoxicity. Nuclear imaging and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) could be used to confirm the contribution of astrocyte neurotoxicity to AD progression. The molecular mechanisms discussed in this review could be targeted in the development of novel therapies for AD.

A Novel Peptide Ameliorates TNFα- and LPS-Induced Endothelia Dysfunction in Preeclampsia

BACKGROUND

To investigate the protective effects of the novel peptide antiendothelial dysfunction peptide in preeclampsia (AEDPPE) on tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα)- and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced injury in the vascular endothelium in preeclampsia.

METHODS

The effects of AEDPPE on TNFα-induced vascular endothelial injury were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, quantitative real-time PCR, mitochondrial membrane potential assay, Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, THP-1 monocyte-human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) adhesion assay, endothelial tube-forming assay, transcriptomic analysis, preeclamptic symptom analysis, and histological analysis in preeclampsia-like rat models induced by LPS.

RESULTS

AEDPPE alleviated the upregulation of antiangiogenic factors including soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1, endothelin-1, and tissue plasminogen activator and attenuated the reduction in mitochondrial potential induced by TNFα in HUVECs. In addition, AEDPPE treatment counteracted the decrease in tube formation and decreased the numbers of THP-1 monocytes attached to HUVECs caused by TNFα. Mechanistically, cytokine-cytokine receptor interactions enriched many genes and the TNF signaling pathway may be involved in this phenomenon. Moreover, cotreatment with LPS and AEDPPE significantly reversed the preeclampsia-like phenotype including hypertension and proteinuria and improved the functions of the kidney and placenta.

CONCLUSIONS

AEDPPE effectively ameliorated the vascular endothelial injury induced by TNFα and LPS in preeclampsia. We suggest that AEDPPE may be a novel therapeutic candidate for preeclampsia treatment. These findings demonstrate that AEDPPE may play an effective role in ameliorating vascular endothelial dysfunction and be a potential therapeutic agent for preeclampsia.

A Novel Competitive Binding Screening Assay Reveals Sennoside B as a Potent Natural Product Inhibitor of TNF-α

Natural products (NPs) have played a significant role in drug discovery for diverse diseases, and numerous attempts have been made to discover promising NP inhibitors of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), a major therapeutic target in autoimmune diseases. However, NP inhibitors of TNF-α, which have the potential to be developed as new drugs, have not been reported for over a decade. To facilitate the search for new promising inhibitors of TNF-α, we developed an efficient competitive binding screening assay based on analytical size exclusion chromatography coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Application of this screening method to the NP library led to the discovery of a potent inhibitor of TNF-α, sennoside B, with an IC₅₀ value of 0.32 µM in TNF-α induced HeLa cell toxicity assays. Surprisingly, the potency of sennoside B was 5.7-fold higher than that of the synthetic TNF-α inhibitor SPD304. Molecular docking was performed to determine the binding mode of sennoside B to TNF-α. In conclusion, we successfully developed a novel competition binding screening method to discover small molecule TNF-α inhibitors and identified the natural compound sennoside B as having exceptional potency.

Effects of Collagen Peptide Administration on Visceral Fat Content in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Mice

Collagen peptides (CPs) are bioactive molecules that have beneficial effects on bone metabolism and against joint disorders. In the present study, we investigated the effect of CP supplementation on visceral fat mass and plasma lipid concentrations in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese mice. Male ddY mice were fed a normal diet or HFD for 3 wk, and assigned to N or NCP groups and to F or FCP groups, respectively. The NCP and FCP group mice were administered experimental diets containing 25 mg/g CPs for 3 wk further. During the experimental period, CP supplementation affected neither the food consumption nor the body weight of the mice. No significant differences in the plasma triglyceride, non-esterified fatty acid, and cholesterol concentrations were observed among all the groups. In contrast, the weight of testicular fat mass was significantly decreased in the FCP group as compared with that in the F group. The expression levels of leptin and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α genes in the adipose tissue correlated with the visceral fat mass, although these differences were not significant. These findings indicate that CPs may have a reducing effect on visceral fat content but are less effective in reducing body weight.

Markers of Inflammation and Vascular Parameters in Selective Progesterone Receptor Modulator (Ulipristal Acetate)-Treated Uterine Fibroids

The exact mechanism of selective progesterone receptor modulator action in leiomyoma still challenges researchers. The aim of the study was to assess the effects of ulipristal acetate (UPA) on immunoexpression of inflammatory markers and vascularization in fibroids. UPA-treated patients were divided into three groups: (1) good response (≥25% reduction in volume of fibroid), (2) weak response (insignificant volume reduction), (3) and no response to treatment (no decrease or increase in fibroid volume). The percentage of TGFβ, IL6, IL10, CD117, and CD68-positive cells were significantly lower in the group with a good response to treatment vs. the control group. Moreover, the percentage of IL10 and CD68-positive cells in the group with a good response to treatment were also significantly lower compared to the no response group. Additionally, a significant decrease in the percentage of IL10-positive cells was found in the good response group vs. the weak response group. There were no statistical differences in the percentage of TNFα-positive cells and vessel parameters between all compared groups. The results of the study indicate that a good response to UPA treatment may be associated with a decrease of inflammatory markers, but it does not influence myoma vascularization.

The let-7f-5p-Nme4 pathway mediates tumor necrosis factor α-induced impairment in osteogenesis of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells

Although tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α)-mediated inflammation significantly impacts osteoporosis, the mechanisms underlying the osteogenic differentiation defects of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) caused by TNF-α remain poorly understood. We found that TNF-α stimulation of murine BM-MSCs significantly upregulated the expression levels of several microRNAs (miRNAs), including let-7f-5p, but this increase was significantly reversed by treatment with the kinase inhibitor BAY 11-7082. To study gain- or loss of function, we transfected cells with an miRNA inhibitor or miRNA mimic. We then demonstrated that let-7f-5p impaired osteogenic differentiation of BM-MSCs in the absence and presence of TNF-α, as evidenced by alkaline phosphatase and alizarin red staining as well as quantitative assays of the mRNA levels of bone formation marker genes in differentiated BM-MSCs. Moreover, let-7f-5p targets the 3' untranslated region of Nucleoside diphosphate kinase 4 (Nme4) mRNA and negatively regulates Nme4 expression in mouse BM-MSCs. Ectopic expression of Nme4 completely reversed the inhibitory effects of the let-7f-5p mimic on osteogenic differentiation of mouse BM-MSCs. Furthermore, inhibition of let-7f-5p or overexpression of Nme4 in BM-MSCs restored in-vivo bone formation in an ovariectomized animal model. Collectively, our work indicates that let-7f-5p is involved in TNF-α-mediated reduction of BM-MSC osteogenesis via targeting Nme4.

N-Butylphthalide vs. Human Urinary Kallidinogenase for the Treatment of Acute Ischemic Stroke: Functional Outcome and Impact on Serum VEGF and TNF-α Expressions

OBJECTIVE

To compare the e!cacy and functional outcomes of dl-3-n-Butylphthalide (NBP) and human urinary kallidinogenase (HUK) on ischemic stroke patients and to determine their effects on serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).

METHODS

A prospective study was conducted on 57 ischemic stroke patients. Functional outcomes were assessed by the National Institute Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS), the modified Rankin Scale (mRS), and the activities of daily living score (ADL), whereas TNF-α and VEGF expressions were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

TNF-α was significantly down-regulated in the NBP group and upregulated in the control group two weeks after treatment (p=0.017 and p=0.047, respectively). A significant difference in VEGF expressions was observed between the two groups (330.25±120.64 vs. 437.15±137.68, p=0.041) two weeks after treatment. Both groups showed significant improvement in NIHSS and ADL scores three months after treatment (p<0.001), with the NBP group exhibiting improvement in NIHSS scores as early as two weeks after treatment (p=0.008). The three-month NIHSS scores of the two groups were significantly lower than those of the control group (p=0.010 and p=0.008, respectively). Both the NBP and HUK groups showed a significant decline in mRS scores two weeks and three months after treatment (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Both treatments are effective and can significantly promote recovery in stroke patients. Additionally, both options have similar effects in promoting long-term recovery, with NBP exerting a greater impact on serum VEGF and TNF-α expressions.

Continuous Inflammatory Stimulation Leads via Metabolic Plasticity to a Prometastatic Phenotype in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells

Chronic inflammation promotes cancer progression by affecting the tumor cells and their microenvironment. Here, we demonstrate that a continuous stimulation (~6 weeks) of triple-negative breast tumor cells (TNBC) by the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) + interleukin 1β (IL-1β) changed the expression of hundreds of genes, skewing the cells towards a proinflammatory phenotype. While not affecting stemness, the continuous TNFα + IL-1β stimulation has increased tumor cell dispersion and has induced a hybrid metabolic phenotype in TNBC cells; this phenotype was indicated by a transcription-independent elevation in glycolytic activity and by increased mitochondrial respiratory potential (OXPHOS) of TNBC cells, accompanied by elevated transcription of mitochondria-encoded OXPHOS genes and of active mitochondria area. The continuous TNFα + IL-1β stimulation has promoted in a glycolysis-dependent manner the activation of p65 (NF-κB), and the transcription and protein expression of the prometastatic and proinflammatory mediators sICAM-1, CCL2, CXCL8 and CXCL1. Moreover, when TNBC cells were stimulated continuously by TNFα + IL-1β in the presence of a glycolysis inhibitor, their conditioned media had reduced ability to recruit monocytes and neutrophils in vivo. Such inflammation-induced metabolic plasticity, which promotes prometastatic cascades in TNBC, may have important clinical implications in treatment of TNBC patients.

Adiponectin Deregulation in Systemic Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases

Deregulation of adiponectin is found in systemic autoimmune rheumatic diseases (SARDs). Its expression is downregulated by various inflammatory mediators, but paradoxically, elevated serum levels are present in SARDs with high inflammatory components, such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Circulating adiponectin is positively associated with radiographic progression in rheumatoid arthritis as well as with cardiovascular risks and lupus nephritis in systemic lupus erythematosus. However, in SARDs with less prominent inflammation, such as systemic sclerosis, adiponectin levels are low and correlate negatively with disease activity. Regulators of adiponectin gene expression (PPAR-γ, Id3, ATF3, and SIRT1) and inflammatory cytokines (interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor α) are differentially expressed in SARDs and could therefore influence total adiponectin levels. In addition, anti-inflammatory therapy could also have an impact, as tocilizumab treatment is associated with increased serum adiponectin. However, anti-tumor necrosis factor α treatment does not seem to affect its levels. Our review provides an overview of studies on adiponectin levels in the bloodstream and other biological samples from SARD patients and presents some possible explanations why adiponectin is deregulated in the context of therapy and gene regulation.

Association of Rheumatoid Arthritis with Diabetic Comorbidity: Correlating Accelerated Insulin Resistance to Inflammatory Responses in Patients

Over the past two decades, with advancement of medical research and technology, treatments of many diseases including chronic disorders like rheumatoid arthritis (RA) have been revolutionized. Treatment and management of RA has been refined by advances in understanding its pathologic mechanisms, the development of drugs which target them and its association with various other chronic comorbidities like diabetes. Diabetes prevalence is closely associated with RA since elevated insulin resistance have been observed with RA. It is also associated with inflammation caused due to pro-inflammatory cytokines like tumour necrosis factor α and interleukin 6. Inflammation encourages insulin resistance and also stimulates other factors like a high level of rheumatoid factor in the blood leading to positivity of rheumatoid factor in RA patients. The degree of RA inflammation also tends to influence the criticality of insulin resistance, which increases with high activity of RA and vice versa. Markers of glucose metabolism appear to be improved by DMARDs like methotrexate, hydroxychloroquine, interleukin 1 antagonists and TNF antagonist while glucocorticoids adversely affect glycemic control especially when administered chronically. The intent of the present review paper is to understand the association between RA, insulin resistance and diabetes; the degree to which both can influence the other along with the plausible impact of RA medications on diabetes and insulin resistance.

Suppression of TNFα expression induced by indole-3-acetic acid is not mediated by AhR activation in Caco-2 cells

Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) produced by intestinal bacteria from tryptophan in dietary proteins is considered to suppress the inflammatory response through aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activation. However, AhR activation was not involved in the downregulation of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) expression induced by IAA in Caco-2 cells. The activation of unidentified IAA receptors might attenuate the inflammatory response to TNFα in colorectal cancer cells.

Persistent Inflammatory Stimulation Drives the Conversion of MSCs to Inflammatory CAFs That Promote Pro-Metastatic Characteristics in Breast Cancer Cells

The pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and interleukin 1β (IL-1β) are expressed simultaneously and have tumor-promoting roles in breast cancer. In parallel, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) undergo conversion at the tumor site to cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), which are generally connected to enhanced tumor progression. Here, we determined the impact of consistent inflammatory stimulation on stromal cell plasticity. MSCs that were persistently stimulated by TNFα + IL-1β (generally 14-18 days) gained a CAF-like morphology, accompanied by prominent changes in gene expression, including in stroma/fibroblast-related genes. These CAF-like cells expressed elevated levels of vimentin and fibroblast activation protein (FAP) and demonstrated significantly increased abilities to contract collagen gels. Moreover, they gained the phenotype of inflammatory CAFs, as indicated by the reduced expression of α smooth muscle actin (αSMA), increased proliferation, and elevated expression of inflammatory genes and proteins, primarily inflammatory chemokines. These inflammatory CAFs released factors that enhanced tumor cell dispersion, scattering, and migration; the inflammatory CAF-derived factors elevated cancer cell migration by stimulating the chemokine receptors CCR2, CCR5, and CXCR1/2 and Ras-activating receptors, expressed by the cancer cells. Together, these novel findings demonstrate that chronic inflammation can induce MSC-to-CAF conversion, leading to the generation of tumor-promoting inflammatory CAFs.

Streptococcus thermophilus MN-ZLW-002 Can Inhibit Pre-adipocyte Differentiation through Macrophage Activation

It is well documented that obesity and metabolic syndrome have a deep association with the intestinal immune system of the host animal. Recent studies indicate that some selected probiotics can modulate the immune responses of the host animal, thereby altering its lipid metabolism. However, the underlying mechanisms are still not fully understood. This study was conducted to investigate the possibility of probiotics to activate macrophages in the hosts, thus alter the differentiation of pre-adipocytes. In this study, Streptococcus thermophilus MN-ZLW-002 (MN-ZLW-002) was co-cultured with RAW264.7 macrophages, with Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) as a control. The conditioned medium (CM) of the co-culture was collected and then added to 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes. Viable and heat-killed (80 °C, 30 min) MN-ZLW-002 stimulated RAW264.7 cells to produce significant amounts of interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and induced intense phosphorylation of P38, p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) (extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)) and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). Cytokine production reduced dramatically when heat-killed MN-ZLW-002 was treated with Ribonuclease. Viable and heat-killed LGG induced less cytokine production and little signaling protein activation. Viable and heat-killed MN-ZLW-002-stimulated RAW264.7-CM notably suppressed pre-adipocytes differentiation. However, viable LGG-stimulated RAW264.7-CM had a weaker effect and heat-killed LGG-stimulated RAW264.7-CM had no effect. These findings suggest that viable and heat-killed (80 °C, 30 min) MN-ZLW-002 may alter its lipid metabolism by regulating its immune response, possibly via the release of cytokine, particularly TNF-α. The RNA of heat-killed MN-ZLW-002 may be a key component in its immune activation effect.

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of alpha-lipoic acid protect against valproic acid-induced liver injury

Valproic acid (VPA) is one of the most used antiepileptic drugs despite of its many adverse effects such as anemia, leucopenia, thrombocytopenia, and liver toxicity. The hepatoprotective effect of alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) was confirmed. The aim of this study was to detect the protective effect of ALA against the adverse effects of VPA. To study this, 30 white albino Wistar male rats were divided into four groups. Group I was the control group; Group II included rats that received ALA (100 mg·kg^-1·day^-1) orally for 14 days; Group III and Group IV included rats that received VPA (500 mg·kg^-1·day^-1) for 15 days intraperitoneally, but Group IV rats received ALA (100 mg·kg^-1·day^-1) orally for 14 days prior to VPA. Blood samples were collected and livers were excised from rats for colorimetric analysis and quantitative real-time PCR. The rats that received VPA showed leucopenia, thrombocytopenia, a significant decrease of superoxide dismutase, glutathione, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, and sirtuin 1, besides a significant increase of malondialdehyde and tumor necrosis factor α. Prior treatment with ALA prevented all these results; ALA protected against VPA-induced liver damage and hematological disturbance via antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Gene Polymorphisms Increase Susceptibility to Adenovirus Infection in Children and Are Correlated with Severity of Adenovirus-Associated Pneumonia

Objective: To study the relationships between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the intron of the tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) gene and the susceptibility and severity of disease associated with adenovirus infection in children. Methods: Four polymorphic loci of the TNFα gene (rs3093661, rs1800610, rs3093662, and rs3093664) were characterized allelically and genotypically in 320 children with adenovirus-associated pneumonia (AP) and compared with 320 healthy controls. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) were used to detect the plasma TNFα protein levels in all subjects. Results: The TNFα gene rs3093661 locus A allele, the rs1800610 locus A allele, the rs3093662 locus G allele, and the rs3093664 locus G allele were identified as susceptibility alleles for development of AP, and they were also positively correlated with the severity of AP. In children who had the GGAA haplotype, AP susceptibility was significantly reduced (0.28-fold) (95% confidence interval, CI: 0.20-0.40, p < 0.001). Conversely, among the subjects with the AGGG haplotype, their AP susceptibility risk was significantly increased (2.76-fold) (95% CI: 1.77-4.29, p < 0.001); and in the subjects with the AP GGGG haplotype their AP susceptibility risk was significantly increased (2.49-fold) (95% CI: 1.67-3.72, p < 0.001). The TNFα rs3093661, rs1800610, rs3093662, and rs3093664 SNPs were significantly correlated with plasma TNFα levels (p < 0.05). Conclusion: The TNFα gene rs3093661, rs1800610, rs3093662, and rs3093664 loci are associated with AP susceptibility and severity. This relationship might be due to the effect on TNFα levels found in the plasma. Clinical Trial Registration number: LL20190723.

Analysis of molecular and clinical parameters of 4-year adalimumab therapy in psoriatic patients

Introdcution

Through interaction with receptors TNFR1 and TNFR2, TNF-α activates a signal path, which exacerbates an inflammatory process, constituting an inseparable element of psoriasis.

Aim

To evaluate changes in the expression of TNF-α, TNFR1, TNFR2 during the 4-year-long adalimumab therapy in psoriatic patients, searching for the correlation between molecular and clinical markers. In addition, the role of miRNAs was analysed.

Material and methods

Whole blood and serum samples of psoriatic patients treated with adalimumab constituted material for the study. Changes in the expression of TNF-α and its receptors were evaluated with the use of the RTqPCR method and MALDI ToF mass spectroscopy, PASI, BSA, DAS28 indexes were used for the clinical analysis of the patients, while the role of miRNA molecules was determined basing on microrna.org database.

Results

Different TNF-α expression patterns were determined in patients with observed resistance to the medicine. We found that there is a correlation between the molecular markers of an inflammatory process and the clinical indexes. The bioinformatic analysis indicates the potential role of miRNAs in the regulation of expression of the analysed genes. Changes in the profile of TNF-α during adalimumab therapy are significantly determined by the individual variability and susceptibility to the biological medicine or its loss.

Conclusions

TNF-α seems to be a useful marker to evaluate the efficacy of therapy and occurring resistance to the medicine. A complex mechanism for the regulation of the analysed gene expression was underlined, which involved the potential role of miRNAs.

PTPRA facilitates cancer growth and migration via the TNF-α-mediated PTPRA-NF-κB pathway in MCF-7 breast cancer cells

Protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type A (PTPRA), one of the classic protein tyrosine phosphatases, is crucial for modulating tumorigenesis and metastasis in breast cancer; however, its functional mechanism has not fully elucidated. The present study assessed PTPRA expression and estimated its clinical impact on survival using the Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis database (GEPIA). Growth curves, colony formations and Transwell assays were utilized to examine cell proliferation and migration. Additionally, luciferase reporter assays were used to examine the potential tumor signaling pathways targeted by PTPRA in HEK293T cells. Furthermore, quantitative PCR (qPCR) was utilized to confirm the transcriptional regulation of PTPRA expression. Bioinformatic analyses of data from GEPIA identified PTPRA overexpression in patients with breast cancer. The growth curve, colony formation and transwell experiments demonstrated that PTPRA upregulation significantly promoted the cell proliferation and migration of MCF-7 breast cancer cells. In contrast, PTPRA knockdown significantly attenuated cell proliferation and migration. Mechanistic experiments revealed that the transcriptional activity of NF-κB was higher compared with other classic tumor pathways when they were activated by PTPRA in HEK293T cells. Furthermore, the transcriptional activity of NF-κB was altered in a PTPRA-dose-dependent manner. Additionally, following exposure to TNF-α, PTPRA-deficient MCF-7 cells exhibited lower NF-κB transcriptional activity compared with normal control cells. The results of the present study demonstrate that PTPRA overexpression accelerates inflammatory tumor phenotypes in breast cancer and that the TNF-α-mediated PTPRA-NF-κB pathway may offer novel insight into early diagnosis and optimum treatment for breast cancer.

Scutellarein alleviates the dysfunction of inner blood-retinal-barrier initiated by hyperglycemia-stimulated microglia cells

AIM

To investigate the alleviation of scutellarein (SN) against inner blood-retinal-barrier (iBRB) dysfunction in microglia cells stimulated by hyperglycemia and to elucidate the engaged mechanism.

METHODS

Microglia BV2 cells were stimulated by using 25 mmol/L D-glucose. The same concentration of mannitol (25 mmol/L) was applied as an isotonic contrast. Real-time PCR, Western-blot assay and immunofluorescence staining assay was performed. The dysfunction of iBRB in vitro was detected by using transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) assay. Additionally, the leakage of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated dextran (70 kDa) was detected.

RESULTS

SN abrogated microglia BV2 cells activation and reduced the phosphorylated activation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK)1/2. SN also decreased the transcriptional activation of nuclear factor κB (NFκB) and the elevated expression of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1β in BV2 cells treated with D-glucose (25 mmol/L). SN attenuated iBRB dysfunction in human retinal endothelial cells (HRECs) or choroid-retinal endothelial RF/6A cells when those cells were treated with TNFα, IL-1β or IL-6, or co-cultured with microglia cells stimulated by D-glucose. Moreover, SN restored the decreased protein expression of tight junctions (TJs) in TNFα-treated HRECs and RF/6A cells.

CONCLUSION

SN not only alleviate iBRB dysfunction via directly inhibiting retinal endothelial injury caused by TNFα, IL-1β or IL-6, but also reduce the release of TNFα, IL-1β and IL-6 from microglia cells by abrogating hyperglycemia-mediated the activation of microglia cells.

The Acute Phase Reaction and Its Prognostic Impact in Patients with Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Single Biomarkers Including C-Reactive Protein Versus Biomarker Profiles

C-reactive protein (CRP) has a prognostic impact in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). However, the acute phase reaction involves many other proteins depending on its inducing events, including various cytokines that can function as reaction inducers. In the present study, we compared the pretreatment acute phase cytokine profile for 144 patients with potentially curative HNSCC. We investigated the systemic levels of interleukin (IL)6 family mediators (glycoprotein (gp130), IL6 receptor (R)α, IL6, IL27, IL31, oncostatin M (OSM), ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF)), IL1 subfamily members (IL1R antagonist (A), IL33Rα), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α. Patient subsets identified from this 10-mediator profile did not differ with regard to disease stage, human papilloma virus (HPV) status, CRP levels, or death cause. Increased CRP, IL6, and IL1RA levels were independent markers for HNSCC-related death in the whole patient population. Furthermore, gp130, IL6Rα, and IL31 were suggested to predict prognosis among tumor HPV-negative patients. Only IL6 predicted survival in HPV-positive patients. Finally, we did a clustering analysis of HPV-negative patients based on six acute phase mediators that showed significant or borderline association with prognosis in Kaplan–Meier analyses; three subsets could then be identified, and they differed in survival (p < 0.001). To conclude, (i) HPV-negative and HPV-positive HNSCC patients show similar variations of their systemic acute phase profiles; (ii) the prognostic impact of single mediators differs between these two patient subsets; and (iii) for HPV-negative patients, acute phase profiling identifies three patient subsets that differ significantly in survival.

Eosinophil-Derived Neurotoxin, Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha, and Calprotectin as Non-Invasive Biomarkers of Food Protein-Induced Allergic Proctocolitis in Infants

Diagnosis of non-IgE mediated food allergy presents a special challenge due to lack of a single, non-invasive diagnostic method. We selected three fecal biomarkers of allergic inflammation of gastrointestinal origin in order to improve the diagnostic process. Twenty-seven infants with symptoms of hematochezia were prospectively enrolled into this study. All patients underwent a complete differential diagnosis of rectal bleeding. Non-IgE mediated food allergy was confirmed by an open, oral food challenge. The control group included twenty-five infants with functional gastrointestinal disorders. Eosinophil-derived neurotoxin (EDN), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), and calprotectin concentration were measured in stools of all children by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) using commercial kits. Median eosinophil-derived neurotoxin and calprotectin fecal levels were significantly higher in the study group than in the control group (p < 0.05). The difference of fecal tumor necrosis factor alpha concentration between both groups was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). The best diagnostic performance was reached in a combination of fecal calprotectin (fCal) and EDN i.e., 88.9% and 84%, respectively. Fecal EDN and fCAl are reliable tools in differentiating between food protein-induced allergic proctocolitis and gastrointestinal functional disorders in infants.

Role of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) in the increased sensitivity of endothelial cells to a promigratory effect of erythropoietin in an inflammatory environment

The proliferation and migration of endothelial cells are vascular events of inflammation, a process which can also potentiate the effects of promigratory factors. With the aim of investigating possible modifications in the activity of erythropoietin (Epo) in an inflammatory environment, we found that Epo at a non-promigratory concentration was capable of stimulating EA.hy926 endothelial cell migration when TNF-α was present. VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 expression, as well as adhesion of monocytic THP-1 cells to endothelial layers were also increased. Structurally modified Epo (carbamylation or N-homocysteinylation) did not exhibit these effects. The sensitizing effect of TNF-α on Epo activity was mediated by the Epo receptor. Inhibition assays targeting the PI3K/mTOR/NF-κB pathway, shared by Epo and TNF-α, show a cross-talk between both cytokines. As observed in assays using antioxidants, cell migration elicited by TNF-α + Epo depended on TNF-α-generated reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS-mediated inactivation of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B), involved in Epo signaling termination, could explain the synergistic effect of these cytokines. Our results suggest that ROS generated by inflammation inactivate PTP1B, causing the Epo signal to last longer. This mechanism, along with the cross-talk between both cytokines, could explain the sensitizing action of TNF-α on the migratory effect of Epo.

1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Inhibits Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Interleukin-6 Production by C2C12 Myotubes

Background and Objective: 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ (1,25(OH)₂D₃) inhibits proinflammatory cytokines in microglial cells and monocytes. However, it is unclear whether 1,25(OH)₂D₃ inhibits proinflammatory cytokines in muscle cells. This study was conducted to investigate whether 1,25(OH)₂D₃ inhibits the production of proinflammatory cytokines, resulting in inhibition of the protein expression of E3 ubiquitin ligases and muscle protein loss. Materials and Methods: C2C12 myoblasts were proliferated in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle medium (DMEM) containing 10% fetal bovine serum, and myoblasts were differentiated into myotubes in DMEM containing 2% horse serum. Myotubes were treated with 1,25(OH)₂D₃ for 24 h, followed by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation for 48 h. Results: Interleukin (IL)-6 protein concentrations were higher in the culture supernatant following LPS stimulation compared to that without LPS stimulation (p < 0.001). However, the IL-6 concentration was significantly lower in C2C12 myotubes following 1,25(OH)₂D₃ treatment than in C2C12 myotubes without 1,25(OH)₂D₃ treatment (p < 0.001). The myosin heavy chain (MHC), muscle atrophy F-box, and muscle ring-finger protein-1 protein levels did not significantly differ (P = 0.324, 0.552, and 0.352, respectively). We could not compare tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) protein levels because they were below the limit of detection of our assay in many supernatant samples, including in LPS-stimulated samples. Conclusions: 1,25(OH)₂D₃ inhibited increases in IL-6 protein concentrations in muscle cells stimulated by LPS, suggesting that 1,25(OH)₂D₃ inhibits inflammation in muscle cells. The findings suggest that 1,25(OH)₂D₃ can prevent or improve sarcopenia, which is associated with IL-6. The TNFα protein content could not be measured, and MHC was not decreased despite LPS stimulation of C2C12 myotubes. Further studies are needed to examine the effects of higher doses of LPS stimulation on muscle cells and use more sensitive methods for measuring TNFα protein to investigate the preventive effects of 1,25(OH)₂D₃ on increased TNFα and muscle proteolysis.

Association between tumor necrosis factor α and uterine fibroids: A protocol of systematic review

BACKGROUND

This study will explore the association between tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and uterine fibroids (UFs).

METHODS

We will retrieve electronic databases in Cochrane Library, PUBMED, EMBASE, Web of Science, WANGFANG, Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure from inception to the present. All potential case-controlled studies investigating the association between TNF-α and UFs will be included in this study. Two researchers will independently select literature, appraise study quality, and extract outcome data. We will utilize a fixed-effects model or a random-effects model to synthesize outcome data. All data analysis will be performed by RevMan 5.3 software.

RESULTS

The present study will supply high-quality synthesis and/or descriptive analysis of the recent evidence to explore the association between TNF-α and UFs.

CONCLUSION

This study will exert evidence to determine whether or not TNF-α is associated with UFs.

STUDY REGISTRATION NUMBER

INPLASY202070010.

Cytomegalovirus and Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD) with a Special Focus on the Link with Ulcerative Colitis (UC)

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infects approximately 40% of adults in France and persists lifelong as a latent agent in different organs, including gut. A close relationship is observed between inflammation that favors viral expression and viral replication that exacerbates inflammation. In this context, CMV colitis may impact the prognosis of patients suffering from inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), and notably those with ulcerative colitis (UC). In UC, the mucosal inflammation and T helper cell (T_H) 2 cytokines, together with immunomodulatory drugs used for controlling flare-ups, favor viral reactivation within the gut, which, in turn, increases mucosal inflammation, impairs corticoid and immunosuppressor efficacy (the probability of steroid resistance is multiplied by more than 20 in the case of CMV colitis), and enhances the risk for colectomy. This review emphasizes the virological tools that are recommended for exploring CMV colitis during inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and underlines the interest of using ganciclovir for treating flare-ups associated to CMV colitis in UC patients.