An Artificial Intelligence-Supported Medicinal Chemistry Project: An Example for Incorporating Artificial Intelligence Within the Pharmacy Curriculum

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to integrate and use AI to teach core concepts in a medicinal chemistry course and to increase the familiarity of pharmacy students with AI in pharmacy practice and drug development. Artificial intelligence (AI) is a multidisciplinary science that aims to build software tools that mimic human intelligence. AI is revolutionizing pharmaceutical research and patient care. Hence, it is important to include AI in pharmacy education to prepare a competent workforce of pharmacists with skills in this area.

METHODS

AI principles were introduced in a required medicinal chemistry course for first-year pharmacy students. An AI software, KNIME, was used to examine structure-activity relationships for 5 drugs. Students completed a data sheet that required comprehension of molecular structures and drug-protein interactions. These data were then used to make predictions for molecules with novel substituents using AI. The familiarity of students with AI was surveyed before and after this activity.

RESULTS

There was an increase in the number of students indicating familiarity with use of AI in pharmacy (before vs after: 25.3% vs 74.5%). The introduction of AI stimulated interest in the course content (> 60% of students indicated increased interest in medicinal chemistry) without compromising the learning outcomes. Almost 70% of students agreed that more AI should be taught in the PharmD curriculum.

CONCLUSION

This is a successful and transferable example of integrating AI in pharmacy education without changing the main learning objectives of a course. This approach is likely to stimulate student interest in AI applications in pharmacy.

[Exploration of the experiment teaching of natural medicinal chemistry for undergraduates]

Natural medicinal chemistry is one of the important courses for students in pharmacy majors. Its experimental teaching focuses on fostering comprehensive experimental skills and innovative abilities of undergraduates. Liaoning University has explored ways to promote the experimental teaching of natural drug chemistry based on the graduate employment and practical teaching experience in the past decade. These explorations include three aspects, such as synchronizing experimental teaching with theoretical teaching, fostering students' awareness of experimental safety, and improving experimental teaching methods in natural drug chemistry experiments. The practices showed that the reform has achieved a good effect. A teaching system that can achieve the three expected aspects has been established, which improved the teaching effect and quality of natural medicinal chemistry experimental courses for undergraduates. Furthermore, these explorations may facilitate fostering pharmacy specialists who can meet the opportunities of developing Chinese medicine and natural drug research and meet the requirements of employment.

Medicinal chemistry: The key to critical thinking in pharmacotherapy

INTRODUCTION

Medicinal chemistry is a polarizing subject for pharmacy students where, if not embraced, future pharmacists may be limited in their role as drug experts. An understanding of medicinal chemistry and its structure-activity relationships creates a strong foundation upon which our knowledge of pharmacotherapy is built.

PERSPECTIVE

As the field of pharmacy has shifted to an increasingly clinical role, with an emphasis on patient care as a member of the interprofessional team, pharmacy has also seen an increase in postgraduate training, specifically residencies and fellowships. Pharmacy students noting this trend may depreciate medicinal chemistry early in the curriculum and place more focus on therapeutics and clinical rotations. However, forgoing the fundamental understanding of medicinal chemistry may hinder pharmacy students' current breadth and understanding, and the ability to rationalize future developments in their practice. Medicinal chemistry empowers pharmacists with the ability to reason through medications' impact versus simply memorizing their actions. Pharmacists play a unique role as drug experts, with advanced problem-solving and critical thinking skills that set them apart from drug references and search engines.

IMPLICATIONS

As the field moves towards pharmacists as a member of the clinical team, the faculty should integrate medicinal chemistry throughout the doctor of pharmacy curricula. Faculty without this ability for a curriculum change should consider integration in their content. The field of pharmacy must take care to not allow clinical knowledge to significantly overshadow the importance of medicinal chemistry or run the risk of saturating the field with underprepared pharmacists.

An account of strategies and innovations for teaching chemistry during the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic led to an abrupt suspension of face-to-face teaching activities in higher education institutions across the globe. The instructors and faculty at most institutions have had to adapt, invent, and implement adjustments quickly to adopt an online learning environment. This has been an extraordinarily challenging time for both students and instructors, particularly as many were not aware of the affordances and weaknesses of the online learning environment before it was uptaken. Particularly for chemistry and related disciplines, this change in delivery mode is even more disruptive in courses that have laboratory components due to loss of access to laboratories. As a teaching community, it was our responsibility to respond quickly and effectively to students' learning needs during this unprecedented global crisis. In our course, we provided succinct pre-recorded lecture-videos by topic rather than live-streaming of lectures. The recordings were made available to students a minimum of 24 h before the scheduled lecture time. Students were then provided opportunities to attend live tutorial sessions (held on Zoom and live Q&A feature on Piazza) if they had any questions that they wanted to ask the lecturer directly. We believe that the asynchronous sessions were more equitable than synchronous ones. This meant that students with difficult and challenging home/learning environments (i.e., disruptions at home, work/family schedules, poor internet, limited access to devices, etc.) were minimally disadvantaged. The approach worked well in general for teaching chemistry to pharmacy students and we believe that it can be adopted for other subjects.

The Power of Chemists Is in What They Can Learn, Not What They Already Know

In this viewpoint, the concepts that chemistry transcends the laboratory into the clinic and beyond is explored from the perspective of a single individual who began strictly within synthetic chemistry. They learned through their training that in reality, chemists are capable of anything, requiring mentorship, open discussion, and some frontend work to learn something new.

Interdisciplinary communication to efficiently develop integrated pharmacotherapeutic sessions

INTRODUCTION

Integration of clinical, biomedical, social, administrative, and pharmaceutical sciences in a pharmacotherapeutics course is beneficial to student education. Unfortunately, the perceived increase in time, commitment, and workload required to produce integrated material often serves as a barrier to high level academic integration. This commentary discusses how interdisciplinary faculty communication started at the beginning of content development, using an initial brief planning session and ongoing unscheduled flexible methods, can efficiently produce integrated material without substantially increasing faculty workload compared to independently produced integrated course material.

COMMENTARY

Content development can be streamlined during a short initial meeting to consider the relevant disciplines (e.g., pharmacology, medicinal chemistry, clinical sciences) for a topic and to collaboratively develop corresponding content outlines. To produce fully integrated material, collaborators should develop content using a cloud-based file sharing system and communicate using asynchronous, electronic means to ask questions and provide suggestions to collaborators.

IMPLICATIONS

Interdisciplinary communication is the foundation of integrated pharmacotherapeutic sessions, but supplemental meetings in addition to already required faculty meetings are both challenging to schedule and time consuming. With proper planning and the deliberate use of both continuous file sharing and asynchronous electronic communication, educators can produce parallel content emphasizing key concepts across disciplines without substantially increasing faculty workload.

Analysis of a novel enrichment strategy for an integrated medicinal chemistry and pharmacology course

INTRODUCTION

Study and application of integrated medicinal chemistry and pharmacology content affords opportunities for students to discuss and develop life-long learning skills.

METHODS

Five thematic enrichment activities were developed (problem solving, metacognition, reading comprehension, case-based problem solving, and structure-based therapeutic evaluation), each containing a self-study and live session featuring unit-specific content. Voluntary, longitudinal sessions were administered to 139 s professional year pharmacy students at the end of each unit of the first course of an integrated pharmacology and medicinal chemistry sequence (academic quarter system). Students provided five-point Likert-item feedback at the beginning of the course, after the first activity, and at course conclusion. Survey questions were linked to self-assessment domains of metacognition, content relevance, confidence, and affective response to content.

RESULTS

Survey responses indicated significant improvement in initial confidence (3.7 [1.1] to 4.2 [1.1]) and metacognition (3.2 [1] to 3.8 [1.1]) domains at course conclusion and significant, sustained improvement in affective domain following the first session (3.5 [1.1] to 4.1 [1.2] to 4.2 [1.2]). Perceived relevance of content did not change significantly (4.3 [1] to 4 [1.1] to 4.1 [1.2]).

CONCLUSIONS

Survey results were consistent with the notion that targeted learning interventions have a significant impact on content perception, which may be especially important for disciplines perceived by students as challenging. Introduction of learning topics with concurrent application may positively influence affective response to learning, which may beneficially impact latent student confidence and self-awareness.

Structure activity relationship (SAR) maps: A student-friendly tool to teach medicinal chemistry in integrated pharmacotherapy courses

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Courses that integrate pharmacology, medicinal chemistry, and pharmacotherapy are widely implemented in pharmacy curriculums. The integration of medicinal chemistry is often challenging given the difficulty of material and time constraints. The objective of this pedagogical approach is to utilize structure activity relationship (SAR) maps as visual aids to teach students medicinal chemistry in an integrated course.

EDUCATIONAL SETTING

SAR maps were designed and implemented within an integrated course focusing on cardiopulmonary diseases. Specific SAR maps used in lecture and class activities included phenylethylamines (adrenergic agonists (i.e. bronchodilators)) and aryloxypropanolamines (beta blockers). Students were assessed in class activities (formative) and exams (high stakes) for specific information surrounding drug structure and the SAR map. Drug properties assessed included essential pharmacophores, pharmacodynamics, physiochemical properties, metabolism, duration of action, and decision-making.

FINDINGS

Results from assessment item analysis reveal that students performed well on medicinal chemistry questions related to the SAR maps (~90% correct on first exam). Students revealed in a survey that the SAR maps enhanced their understanding of medicinal chemistry concepts.

SUMMARY

SAR maps are effective tools that visually teach students key concepts in medicinal chemistry. This millennial student-friendly tool is time-effective and promotes learning as opposed to drug structure memorization. The SAR map can be easily implemented in other integrated courses focused on various disease states.

Implementation of the Pharmacists' Patient Care Process in a Medicinal Chemistry Course

Objective. To implement the Pharmacists' Patient Care Process (PPCP) in a medicinal chemistry course. Methods. Doctor of Pharmacy students in a medicinal chemistry course were challenged to apply the PPCP in a lesson on cholinesterase inhibitors and NMDA receptor antagonist in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. A clinical faculty member with expertise in the topic reviewed the clinical information provided to ensure applicability to patient care. A pre- and post-course survey was administered to assess students' understanding of the PPCP and the effectiveness of the strategies used. Students' pre- and post-course responses were analyzed, and qualitative themes were identified. Results. Of the 141 students enrolled in the course, 96% and 97% completed the pre- and post-course surveys, respectively. Students' post-course responses were higher than pre-course answers to the question that they knew all the steps of the PPCP (96% vs 66%, respectively). Ninety one percent in the post-course survey compared to 62% in the pre-course survey listed the PPCP steps correctly. In addition, more than 90% of the students indicated that the strategies used in the class helped them understand and relate to the PPCP. Qualitative responses revealed themes with positive responses related to the course, course activities, PPCP goals and curriculum design based on the implementation of the PPCP. Conclusion. The introduction of the PPCP as a framework for all pharmacy practitioners is a worthy endeavor. Purposeful strategies to introduce the PPCP in a medicinal course were positively received by students. Formalized efforts to implement the PPCP in clinical, social and administrative, and science courses are critical to introduce the PPCP as a framework for all future pharmacy practitioners.

LabSafety, the Pharmaceutical Laboratory Android Application, for Improving the Knowledge of Pharmacy Students

Currently, traditional paper methods may not effectively be used in education due to lack of access, outdated content, and poor graphics. Education through mobile-based applications is one of the alternative solutions. The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate LabSafety educational application and its effect on promoting the knowledge of pharmacy students. In this interventional study, the LabSafety application was first developed and evaluated for educating students about the safety measures in laboratories. Then, all pharmacy students from Kerman University of Medical Sciences (n = 316) were selected and randomly enrolled into one of three groups using simple random sampling: control (n = 106), traditional (n = 105), and application (n = 105) groups. To assess students' knowledge before and after the intervention, two valid and reliable (Cronbach's Alpha = 0.94 and 0.93, respectively) questionnaires were used. The results of the study showed no significant differences among the mean scores of the participants' knowledge before intervention (p = 0.82). After the intervention, the mean scores of the application group were 5.52 higher than the scores of the traditional group and 7.3 higher than the scores of the control group (p < 0.0001). Age had no significant effect on the posttest scores of the participants (p = 0.52). As a result, the use of this educational application can effectively increase the knowledge of all age groups of pharmacy students regarding safety measures in pharmaceutical laboratories. The mobile-based applications with online and offline access, interactive features, and user-friendly interfaces are more engaging and they can be used complementary to traditional training methods. © 2019 International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 48(1):44-53, 2020.

A multiyear comparison of flipped- vs. lecture-based teaching on student success in a pharmaceutical science class

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

To gauge the potential effect of mode of content delivery on overall student success in a pharmaceutical sciences course in a doctor of pharmacy program.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING

Principles of Drug Action I (PDAI) is a first-year pharmaceutical science course typically taught by multiple faculty, and each utilizes their own approach to deliver course content. Over a seven year period, the course naturally separated into blocks. Block-1 was taught using a traditional lecture-based approach while Block-2 varied between either a lecture-based or a flipped-classroom format. Student success was evaluated by exam at the end of each block.

FINDINGS

For the four years in which Block-2 was taught by lecture, the number of exam failures was similar to Block-1. For each of the three years Block-2 was taught via the flipped-classroom format, the number of exam failures was approximately half that of Block-1. While grades for the lecture-based Block-1 trended downward over the seven-year evaluation period, average exam grades overall were similar between Block-1 and Block-2 each year regardless of teaching modality.

SUMMARY

Retrospective analysis of this novel blocked approach within PDAI provided a means of internally evaluating the potential effect of teaching format on overall student performance. The results described here support previous studies that indicate that the flipped-classroom approach can reduce course failures. These findings also show that flipped-classroom teaching may have a greater impact on improving learning in lower-performing students.

An inquiry-based exercise in medicinal chemistry: Synthesis of a molecular library and screening for potential antimalarial and anti-inflammatory compounds

The development of new medicines holds particular fascination for chemistry, biochemistry, and biology students interested in a career in medicine or the life sciences. The identification and refinement of lead compounds to treat diseases requires researchers to be facile in a number of different disciplines including organic synthesis, biochemistry, cell biology, and molecular biology. We have developed an interdisciplinary, inquiry-based laboratory spanning both organic chemistry and biochemistry classes that acquaints students with research in medicinal chemistry. The first part of the exercise takes place in the second semester of organic chemistry, where pairs of students design and execute their own multistep synthesis of a novel compound with anti-inflammatory and/or antimalarial potential. Later, in first semester biochemistry, many of the same students then test these synthesized compounds for cytotoxicity, inhibition of the enzyme nitric oxide synthase, and inhibition of the transcription factor NF-kB. Learning outcomes, measured by the Classroom Undergraduate Research Experience (CURE) survey, suggest that students participating in both classes had higher gains than an average student. © 2018 International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 46(5):424-434, 2018.

Student Learning with Generated and Answered Peer-written Questions

Objective. To investigate the degree to which student-generated questions or answering student-generated multiple-choice questions predicts course performance in medicinal chemistry. Methods. Students enrolled in Medicinal Chemistry III over a 3-year period were asked to create at least one question per exam period using PeerWise; within the software, they were also asked to answer and rate one peer question per class session. Students' total reputation scores and its components (question authoring, answering, and rating) and total answer scores (correctness of answers submitted indicating agreement with the author's chosen answer) were analyzed relative to final course grades. Results. Students at the non-satellite campus and those who generated more highly rated questions performed better overall in the course accounting for 12% of the variability in course grades. The most notable differences were between the top third and bottom third performing students within the course. The number of questions answered by students was not a significant predictor of course performance. Conclusion. Student generation of more highly rated questions (referred to as more thoughtful in nature by the software program) is predictive of course performance but it only explained a small variability in course grades. The correctness of answers submitted, however, did not relate to student performance.

The Importance of Medicinal Chemistry Knowledge in the Clinical Pharmacist's Education

Objective. To show why medicinal chemistry must be a key component of the education of pharmacy students, as well as in the pharmacist's practice. Findings. Five case reports were selected by their clinically relevant elements of medicinal chemistry and were explained using structure-activity relationship data of the drugs involved in the case easily obtained from primary literature and in medicinal chemistry textbooks. Summary. This paper demonstrates how critical clinical decisions can be addressed using medicinal chemistry knowledge. While such knowledge may not explain all clinical decisions, medicinal chemistry concepts are essential for the education of pharmacy students to explain drug action in general and clinical decisions.

A pharmacy student's role as a teaching assistant in an undergraduate medicinal chemistry course - Implementation, evaluation, and unexpected opportunities for educational outreach

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

To describe 1) a pharmacy student's teaching assistant (TA) role in an undergraduate medicinal chemistry course, 2) an active learning module co-developed by the TA and instructor, and 3) the unexpected opportunities for pharmacy educational outreach that resulted from this collaboration.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING

Medicinal Chemistry (CHM3413) is an undergraduate course offered each fall at Palm Beach Atlantic University (PBA). As a TA for CHM3413, a pharmacy student from the Gregory School of Pharmacy (GSOP) at PBA co-developed and implemented an active learning module emphasizing foundational medicinal chemistry concepts as they pertain to performance enhancing drugs (PEDs). Surveys assessed undergraduate students' perceived knowledge of medicinal chemistry concepts, PEDs, and TA involvement.

FINDINGS

Students' (total n = 60, three fall semesters) perceived confidence in knowledge of medicinal chemistry concepts and PEDs increased significantly (p < 0.001) after the TA's module. Nearly 93% of students acknowledged this was their first interaction with a TA at PBA, ~ 82% "agreed/strongly agreed" that the TA provided effective instruction, and ~ 62% "agreed/strongly agreed" that TA availability raised overall confidence in CHM3413. Unexpected "side-effects" of this collaboration included opportunities for the TA and instructor to discuss health risks associated with PED usage with student-athletes and coaches at PBA.

DISCUSSION

This collaboration developed the pharmacy student's teaching skills and reinforced knowledge of foundational pharmaceutical science concepts for both the TA and undergraduate students. Unexpected "side-effects" that resulted from this collaboration included opportunities for the TA and instructor to discuss health risks associated with PED usage with student-athletes in PBA's athletic department.

SUMMARY

Educational/interprofessional outreach opportunities resulted from a pharmacy student TA's involvement in an undergraduate medicinal chemistry course. An advanced pharmacy practice experience elective in sports pharmacy (based on Ambrose's model) begins Fall 2017.

A pilot study assessing the value of 3D printed molecular modelling tools for pharmacy student education

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Medicinal chemistry and pharmacology are difficult topics to both teach and learn given the complex nature of drug mechanisms and drug-receptor interactions. This highlights the need for innovative teaching methods to deliver this information to students. One such method is through three-dimensional (3D) printing of enzymes and ligands in the teaching of molecular modelling concepts relating to drug-receptor and enzyme interactions be ligands. This type of printing has been shown to be beneficial in several educational settings; however, to our knowledge, its effectiveness in pharmacy, medicinal chemistry and pharmacology learning and teaching is largely unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate pharmacy student perceptions and the educational benefits of 3D printed molecules in molecular modelling with regards to engagement and learning outcomes when used in a drug-target interaction topic.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING

This aim was achieved through administering students a short questionnaire designed to evaluate their engagement and learning outcomes with students also free to provide comments.

FINDINGS

This study found that nearly all (>90%) students found the activity was useful in improving both student engagement and learning outcomes.

DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

In conclusion, 3D printing may provide an alternative learning activity to help pharmacy students understand the drug-target interaction.

Students' Perception of Self-Efficacy Following Medicinal Chemistry Skills Laboratory Exercises

Objective. To analyze student perceptions of self-efficacy in meeting medicinal chemistry course related educational outcomes and skills following a medicinal chemistry skills laboratory. Methods. Four activities were implemented in a pharmacy skills laboratory (PSL) for second-year pharmacy students. Students (n=121) worked individually on exercises for three of the four activities. Pre/post-laboratory surveys on self-efficacy were administered. The McNemar test was performed to evaluate students' self-efficacy above 70% related to course outcomes before and after the exercises in each activity. An independent t test was conducted to compare the mean of students' responses on meeting course outcomes based on the 70% anchor for the perspective confidence on meeting course outcomes. Results. The post-PSL scores on all self-efficacy questions improved. The majority of students reported skill development in all exercises. Students and clinical faculty qualitative responses indicated they felt exercises were effective. Conclusion. A PSL can serve as a valuable opportunity to address course related educational outcomes and specific skill development and can help students assess their self-efficacy in meeting them.

Using Problem-Based Learning in a Chemistry Practical Class for Pharmacy Students and Engaging Them with Feedback

OBJECTIVE

To introduce a new approach to problem-based learning (PBL) used in a medicinal chemistry practical class for pharmacy students.

DESIGN

The chemistry practical class was based on independent studies by small groups of undergraduate students (4-5), who designed their own practical work, taking relevant professional standards into account. Students were guided by feedback and acquired a set of skills important for health-care professionals. The model was tailored to the application of PBL in a chemistry practical class setting for a large student cohort (150 students). The achievement of learning outcomes was based on the submission of relevant documentation, including a certificate of analysis, in addition to peer assessment. Some of the learning outcomes also were assessed in the final written examination.

ASSESSMENT

The practical was assessed at several time points using detailed marking schemes in order to provide the students with feedback. Students were required to engage with the feedback to succeed in the practical.

CONCLUSION

A novel PBL chemistry laboratory course for pharmacy students was successful in that self-reflective learning and engagement with feedback were encouraged, and students enjoyed the challenging learning experience. Essential skills for health-care professionals were also promoted.

Test-Enhanced Learning in an Immunology and Infectious Disease Medicinal Chemistry/Pharmacology Course

Objective. To develop a series of active-learning modules that would improve pharmacy students' performance on summative assessments. Design. A series of optional online active-learning modules containing questions with multiple formats for topics in a first-year (P1) course was created using a test-enhanced learning approach. A subset of module questions was modified and included on summative assessments. Assessment. Student performance on module questions improved with repeated attempts and was predictive of student performance on summative assessments. Performance on examination questions was higher for students with access to modules than for those without access to modules. Module use appeared to have the most impact on low performing students. Conclusion. Test-enhanced learning modules with immediate feedback provide pharmacy students with a learning tool that improves student performance on summative assessments and also may improve metacognitive and test-taking skills.

Design and implementation of a laboratory-based drug design and synthesis advanced pharmacy practice experience

OBJECTIVE

To provide students with an opportunity to participate in medicinal chemistry research within the doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) curriculum.

DESIGN

We designed and implemented a 3-course sequence in drug design or drug synthesis for pharmacy students consisting of a 1-month advanced elective followed by two 1-month research advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs). To maximize student involvement, this 3-course sequence was offered to third-year and fourth-year students twice per calendar year.

ASSESSMENT

Students were evaluated based on their commitment to the project's success, productivity, and professionalism. Students also evaluated the course sequence using a 14-item course evaluation rubric. Student feedback was overwhelmingly positive. Students found the experience to be a valuable component of their pharmacy curriculum.

CONCLUSION

We successfully designed and implemented a 3-course research sequence that allows PharmD students in the traditional 4-year program to participate in drug design and synthesis research. Students report the sequence enhanced their critical-thinking and problem-solving skills and helped them develop as independent learners. Based on the success achieved with this sequence, efforts are underway to develop research APPEs in other areas of the pharmaceutical sciences.

Integrating a new medicinal chemistry and pharmacology course sequence into the PharmD curriculum

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the implementation of an integrated medicinal chemistry/pharmacology course sequence and its alignment with a therapeutics series.

DESIGN

Each topic was divided into modules consisting of 2-hour blocks, and the content was integrated and aligned with the therapeutics series. Recitation sessions emphasizing application skills in an interactive environment followed each of three 2-hour blocks. To ensure that students achieved competency in each unit, students failing any unit examination were encouraged to undergo remediation.

ASSESSMENT

Student feedback was collected by an independent researcher through social media and focus groups and relayed anonymously to course directors for midcourse improvements. Responses from surveys, interviews, and student ratings of faculty members and of courses were used to implement changes for future editions of the courses.

CONCLUSION

The majority of students and faculty members felt the integration and alignment processes were beneficial changes to the curriculum. Elements of the new sequence, including remediation, were viewed positively by students and faculty members as well.

Outcomes of Individualized Formative Assessments in a Pharmacy Skills Laboratory

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effectiveness of an individualized teaching method in a pharmacy skills laboratory.

DESIGN

All third-year students enrolled in an Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) accredited doctor of pharmacy program (n=150) received an individual formative assessment from clinical pharmacists on communication skills and clinical competency after the students counseled standardized mock glaucoma patients during a laboratory focused on alternative dosing formulations. Objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) scores for this station from the 2012 and 2013 classes were compared before and after the intervention.

ASSESSMENT

Ophthalmic OSCE station scores were higher after the individual formative feedback intervention. Students in 2013 had a mean score of 83.2 ± 8.3% compared to a mean of 74.3 ± 12.9% in 2012 for this OSCE station. The percentage of students receiving an "A" on the OSCE station increased from 8.1% to 31.3% after the intervention.

CONCLUSION

Individualized formative teaching methods benefited students in both their communication skills and clinical assessment. Future research should focus on wider implementation and overcoming obstacles, such as increased facilitator needs.

A three-year study of the impact of instructor attitude, enthusiasm, and teaching style on student learning in a medicinal chemistry course

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of instructor attitude, enthusiasm, and teaching style on learning for distance and campus pharmacy students.

METHODS

Over a 3-year period, distance and campus students enrolled in the spring semester of a medicinal chemistry course were asked to complete a survey instrument with questions related to instructor attitude, enthusiasm, and teaching style, as well as items to measure student intrinsic motivation and vitality.

RESULTS

More positive responses were observed among distance students and older students. Gender did not impact student perspectives on 25 of the 26 survey questions. Student-related items were significantly correlated with instructor-related items. Also, student-related items and second-year cumulative grade point average were predictive of students' final course grades. Instructor enthusiasm demonstrated the highest correlation with student intrinsic motivation and vitality.

CONCLUSION

While this study addresses the importance of content mastery and instructional methodologies, it focuses on issues related to instructor attitude, instructor enthusiasm, and teaching style, which all play a critical role in the learning process. Thus, instructors have a responsibility to evaluate, reevaluate, and analyze the above factors to address any related issues that impact the learning process, including their influence on professional students' intrinsic motivation and vitality, and ability to meet educational outcomes.

[Inheritance of academic idea and experience about using traditional Chinese medicine from JIN Shi-yuan]

Professor Jin Shi-yuan has been worked in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) over 70 years. He made prominent contributions in identification, processing, dispensing of TCM and reasonable use proprietary Chinese medicine. In over 70 years, he has mastered herbal medicine and traditional Chinese Medicine. It is also professor JIN's academic characteristic. Professor JIN's practical experiences were summarized according to the current situation about clinical medication, change of species of Juhong and Chenpi has been different from species of medical history. The quality is lower than before. Medicinal parts of Danggui, Gancao, Huangqin and Wuyao has been changed. So the actions of these herbal medicines have been changed also. Fresh herbal Qianchangpu has disappeared but it should be used clinically. Medical history, change of species, change of medicinal part, and change of preparing process in professor JIN's academic idea were be summarized periodically. The result is hoped to be referred by administration, manufacture, medical treatment of TCM.

[Briefly analysis on academic origins of traditional Chinese medicine dispensing]

Through collecting and collating the development process of traditional Chinese medicine dispensing, the development of modern Chinese medicine dispensing on the basis of experience could be promoted. "Heyaofenji", "Hehe", " Heji" in ancient Chinese medicine, herbal medicine literature and law were collected, and then things were sorted out according to traditional Chinese medicine dispensing theory, skills and legal norms. Firstly, "Tang Ye Jing Fa" is the earliest book which marks the rudiment of traditional Chinese medicine dispensing. Secondly, traditional Chinese medicine dispensing theory formed in "Shen Nong's herbal classic". Thirdly, Zhang Zhongjing's "Treatise on Febrile Diseases" marked the formation of Chinese medicine dispensing skills. Lastly, Provisions in Tang Dynasty law marks the development of traditional Chinese medicine dispensing.

Laboratory exercises to teach clinically relevant chemistry of antibiotics

OBJECTIVES

To design, implement, and evaluate student performance on clinically relevant chemical and spectral laboratory exercises on antibiotics.

DESIGN

In the first of 2 exercises, second-year pharmacy students enrolled in an integrated laboratory sequence course studied the aqueous stability of ß-lactam antibiotics using a spectral visual approach. In a second exercise, students studied the tendency of tetracycline, rifamycins, and fluoroquinolones to form insoluble chelate complexes (turbidity) with polyvalent metals.

ASSESSMENT

On a survey to assess achievement of class learning objectives, students agreed the laboratory activities helped them better retain important information concerning antibiotic stability and interactions. A significant improvement was observed in performance on examination questions related to the laboratory topics for 2012 and 2013 students compared to 2011 students who did not complete the laboratory. A 1-year follow-up examination question administered in a separate course showed >75% of the students were able to identify rifamycins-food interactions compared with <25% of students who had not completed the laboratory exercises.

CONCLUSION

The use of spectral visual approaches allowed students to investigate antibiotic stability and interactions, thus reinforcing the clinical relevance of medicinal chemistry. Students' performance on questions at the 1-year follow-up suggested increased retention of the concepts learned as a result of completing the exercises.

Basics of compounding: Tips and hints: powders, capsules, tablets, suppositories, and sticks, part 1

No matter the profession, professionals should never stop learning. This is especially true and important in the profession of compounding pharmacy. Compounding pharmacists are continuously faced with the challenge of finding new and inventive ways to assist patients with their individual and specific drug requirements. As compounding pharmacists learn, be it through formal continuing education or experience, they should be willing to share their knowledge with other compounders. In our goal of providing compounding pharmacists with additional knowledge to improve their skills in the art and practice of compounding, this article, which provides tips and hits on compounding with powders, capsules, tablets, suppositories, and sticks, represents the first in a series of articles to assist compounding pharmacists in the preparation of compounded medications.

Learning approaches as predictors of academic performance in first year health and science students

AIMS

To compare health and science students' demographic characteristics and learning approaches across different disciplines, and to examine the relationship between learning approaches and academic performance.

BACKGROUND

While there is increasing recognition of a need to foster learning approaches that improve the quality of student learning, little is known about students' learning approaches across different disciplines, and their relationships with academic performance.

DESIGN

Prospective, correlational design.

METHODS

Using a survey design, a total of 919 first year health and science students studying in a university located in the western region of Sydney from the following disciplines were recruited to participate in the study - i) Nursing: n = 476, ii) Engineering: n = 75, iii) Medicine: n = 77, iv) Health Sciences: n = 204, and v) Medicinal Chemistry: n = 87.

RESULTS

Although there was no statistically significant difference in the use of surface learning among the five discipline groups, there were wide variations in the use of deep learning approach. Furthermore, older students and those with English as an additional language were more likely to use deep learning approach. Controlling for hours spent in paid work during term-time and English language usage, both surface learning approach (β = -0.13, p = 0.001) and deep learning approach (β = 0.11, p = 0.009) emerged as independent and significant predictors of academic performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings from this study provide further empirical evidence that underscore the importance for faculty to use teaching methods that foster deep instead of surface learning approaches, to improve the quality of student learning and academic performance.

Creation of medicinal chemistry learning communities through enhanced technology and interdisciplinary collaboration

Objectives. To build an integrated medicinal chemistry learning community of campus and distance pharmacy students though the use of innovative technology and interdisciplinary teaching.Design. Mechanisms were implemented to bring distance students into campus-based medicinal chemistry classrooms in real time, stimulate interaction between instructors and various student cohorts, and promote group work during class. Also, pharmacy clinician colleagues were recruited to contribute to the teaching of the 3 medicinal chemistry courses.Assessment. Student perceptions on the value of technology to build community and advance learning were gleaned from course evaluations, in class feedback, and conversations with class officers and student groups. Responses on a survey of second-year students confirmed the benefits of interdisciplinary content integration on engagement and awareness of the connection between drug chemistry and pharmacy practice. A survey of clinician colleagues who contributed to teaching the 3 medicinal chemistry courses found their views were similar to those of students.Conclusions. The purposeful use of technology united learners, fostered communication, and advanced content comprehension in 3 medicinal chemistry courses taught to campus and distance students. Teaching collaboration with pharmacy clinicians enhanced learner interest in course content and provided insight into the integrated nature of the profession of pharmacy.

An active-learning assignment requiring pharmacy students to write medicinal chemistry examination questions

OBJECTIVES

To implement and assess the effectiveness of an assignment requiring doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students to write examination questions for the medicinal chemistry sections of a pharmacotherapeutics course.

DESIGN

Students were divided into groups of 5-6 and given detailed instructions and grading rubrics for writing multiple-choice examination questions on medicinal chemistry topics. The compiled student-written questions for each examination were provided to the entire class as a study aid. Approximately 5% of the student-written questions were used in course examinations.

ASSESSMENT

Student appreciation of and performance in the medicinal chemistry portion of the course was significantly better than that of the previous year's class. Also, students' responses on a qualitative survey instrument indicated that the assignment provided students' guidance on which concepts to focus on, helped them retain knowledge better, and fostered personal exploration of the content, which led to better performance on examinations.

CONCLUSION

Adding an active-learning assignment in which students write examination questions for the medicinal chemistry portion of a pharmacotherapeutics course was an effective means of increasing students engagement in the class and knowledge of the course material.

Active-learning exercises to teach drug-receptor interactions in a medicinal chemistry course

OBJECTIVE

To incorporate structural biology, enzyme kinetics, and visualization of protein structures in a medicinal chemistry course to teach fundamental concepts of drug design and principles of drug action.

DESIGN

Pedagogy for active learning was incorporated via hands-on experience with visualization software for drug-receptor interactions and concurrent laboratory sessions. Learning methods included use of clicker technology, in-class assignments, and analogies.

ASSESSMENT

Quizzes and tests that included multiple-choice and open-ended items based on Bloom's taxonomy were used to assess learning. Student feedback, classroom exercises, and tests were used to assess teaching methods and effectiveness in meeting learning outcomes.

CONCLUSION

The addition of active-learning activities increased students' understanding of fundamental medicinal chemistry concepts such as ionization state of molecules, enzyme kinetics, and the significance of protein structure in drug design.

Crossword puzzles as a tool to enhance learning about anti-ulcer agents

OBJECTIVE

To design, implement, and evaluate the use of crossword puzzles as a low-stakes educational tool for enhancing learning about anti-ulcer agents.

DESIGN

Crossword puzzles were created using a free Internet resource and administered to students during 3 consecutive lectures covering the pharmacology and medicinal chemistry of anti-ulcer agents. Student perceptions of the crossword puzzle were examined using an 8-item survey instrument.

ASSESSMENT

Over 90% of students indicated that crossword puzzles enhanced their learning, oriented them to the important topics, and served as good reviews of the lecture material.

CONCLUSION

Students perceived that crossword puzzles enhanced their learning of anti-ulcer agents. Use of crossword puzzles provides a simple and creative way to incorporate active learning into pharmacy classroom instruction.

Active-learning assignments to integrate basic science and clinical course material

OBJECTIVE

To develop, implement, and evaluate active-learning exercises requiring the integration and application of pathophysiology, medicinal chemistry, pharmacology, and therapeutics knowledge of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis to formulate therapeutic recommendations for patients with musculoskeletal disorders.

DESIGN

Two team-based case study exercises, one evaluating a patient with osteoarthritis and the second, a patient with rheumatoid arthritis, were developed, incorporating material and questions from pathophysiology, medicinal chemistry, pharmacology, and therapeutics. The learning assignments were implemented in a required pharmacotherapy module.

ASSESSMENT

Student learning was evaluated using performance on the team-based case study exercises and on 2 examinations. A standard student course evaluation was used to assess students' impressions of the learning activity. The mean student grades for the osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis activities were 9.1 and 8.9, respectively, on a 10-point scale. The majority of students indicated that the learning exercises were more than adequate to excellent in helping students learn.

CONCLUSION

The addition of active-learning activities was successful in teaching pharmacy students the knowledge needed to formulate therapeutic recommendations for patients with musculoskeletal disorders.

A process-oriented guided inquiry approach to teaching medicinal chemistry

OBJECTIVE

To integrate process-oriented guided-inquiry learning (POGIL) team-based activities into a 1-semester medicinal chemistry course for doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students and determine the outcomes.

DESIGN

Students in the fall 2007 section of the Medicinal Chemistry course were taught in a traditional teacher-centered manner, with the majority of class time spent on lectures and a few practice question sets. Students in the fall 2008 and fall 2009 sections of Medicinal Chemistry spent approximately 40% of class time in structured self-selected teams where they worked through guided-inquiry exercises to supplement the lecture material.

ASSESSMENT

The mean examination score of students in the guided-inquiry sections (fall 2008 and fall 2009) was almost 3 percentage points higher than that of students in the fall 2007 class (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the grade distribution shifted from a B-C centered distribution (fall 2007 class) to an A-B centered distribution (fall 2008 and fall 2009 classes).

CONCLUSIONS

The inclusion of the POGIL style team-based learning exercises improved grade outcomes for the students, encouraged active engagement with the material during class time, provided immediate feedback to the instructor regarding student-knowledge deficiencies, and created a classroom environment that was well received by students.

The pharmacology of immunosuppression

OBJECTIVE

To provide students with a comprehensive, integrated presentation on the pharmacology of immuosuppression.

DESIGN

Course content on the pharmacology of immunosuppression relating to organ transplantation and treatment of autoimmune disorders was presented in integrated sequence modules that included content from pharmacology, medicinal chemistry, and therapeutics. Weekly recitation sessions and active-learning exercises were incorporated to allow students to apply the information they learned to integrated patient cases and stimulate involvement and critical thinking. Fundamental material related to the components and functions of the immune system was presented to students early in curriculum with courses such as biochemistry, pathophysiology, and immunology/microbiology.

ASSESSMENT

Comprehensive examinations, in-class quizzes, written case submissions, case discussions, review exercises, and group exercises were used to assess student learning.

CONCLUSION

Students at South University received a comprehensive and detailed understanding of all aspects relating to immunosuppressive therapy. This was accomplished by integrating instruction on immunosuppressive therapy from various disciplines.

Electronic integration of prerequisite course content

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effect of electronic integration of embedded prerequisite information (EPI) on student learning.

DESIGN

Specific prerequisite information presented in a Chemical Basis of Drug Action course and important to understanding new topics presented in subsequent courses was identified and embedded in online course materials using pop-ups and hyperlinks. Students were encouraged to review the EPI.

ASSESSMENT

There was no significant difference (P<0.05) between student performance on examination 3, which covered embedded information, and student performance on examination 1 which did not. Employing the Likert scale, a cumulative average of 75% and 87% of the campus and distance students rated the impact of EPI slightly positive to positive, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Although student performance did not improve with the introduction of EPI, both campus and distance students viewed the EPI positively.

A receptor-grounded approach to teaching nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug chemistry and structure-activity relationships

OBJECTIVE

To describe a receptor-based approach to promote learning about nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) chemistry, structure-activity relationships, and therapeutic decision-making.

DESIGN

Three lessons on cyclooxygenase (COX) and NSAID chemistry, and NSAID therapeutic utility, were developed using text-based resources and primary medicinal chemistry and pharmacy practice literature. Learning tools were developed to assist students in content mastery.

ASSESSMENT

Student learning was evaluated via performance on quizzes and examinations that measured understanding of COX and NSAID chemistry, and the application of that knowledge to therapeutic problem solving.

CONCLUSION

Student performance on NSAID-focused quizzes and examinations documented the success of this approach.

Chemistry misconceptions associated with understanding calcium and phosphate homeostasis

Successful learning of many aspects in physiology depends on a meaningful understanding of fundamental chemistry concepts. Two conceptual diagnostic questions measured student understanding of the chemical equilibrium underlying calcium and phosphate homeostasis. One question assessed the ability to predict the change in phosphate concentration when calcium ions were added to a saturated calcium phosphate solution. Fifty-two percent of the students correctly predicted that the phosphate concentration would decrease in accord with the common ion effect. Forty-two percent of the students predicted that the phosphate concentration would not change. Written explanations showed that most students failed to evoke the idea of competing chemical equilibria. A second question assessed the predicted change in calcium concentration after solid calcium phosphate was added to a saturated solution. Only 11% of the students correctly predicted no change in calcium concentration; 86% of the students predicted an increase, and many based their prediction on a mistaken application of Le Chatelier's principle to heterogeneous equilibria. These results indicate that many students possess misconceptions about chemical equilibrium that may hamper understanding of the processes of calcium and phosphate homeostasis. Instructors can help students gain greater understanding of these physiochemical phenomena by adopting strategies that enable students achieve more accurate conceptions of chemical equilibria.

[Study on the history of exchange in pharmaceutical science between Japan and Korea after the Modern period: focus on Korean students sent to Japan with expenses funded by the Japanese government]

According to an old historical text, Nihonshoki [Chinese and Korean characters: see text]), there are records of medical doctors ([Chinese and Korean characters: see text]) and herbal pharmacists ([Chinese and Korean characters: see text]) being dispatched to Japan as early as 554 A.D. ([Chinese and Korean characters: see text]). More recently, a clinic ([Chinese and Korean characters: see text]) for Japanese residents in Pusan was established in 1877. Advanced modern pharmacy from Japan began to be introduced to Korea after 1909. Based on an agreement between the Korean and Japanese governments, Korean students sent to Japan with expenses funded by the Japanese government became a systematic program after 1965. As a result, Koreans who earned Ph.D.s from Japanese universities became a majority in the faculties of Korean schools of pharmacy. However, this trend drastically shifted in the years after 1990, at which time the primary nation for earning Ph.D.s became the United States; the number of students studying in Japan has become very low recently. In this study, six ex-students who studied in Japan were interviewed and the results were analyzed. Furthermore, the past, present and future perspectives of Korean students in Japan were discussed while focusing on the system of Korean students being sent to Japan with expenses funded by the Japanese government.

The relevance of prior knowledge in learning and instructional design

OBJECTIVES

To determine how different types of prior knowledge (declarative and procedural) impact student achievement and how prior-knowledge assessment can be used as an instructional design tool.

METHODS

A questionnaire was developed based on the prior-knowledge model, which distinguishes between declarative and procedural knowledge. One hundred fifteen pharmacy students were tested prior to beginning 4 successive basic science courses and then prior to beginning a pharmaceutical chemistry course. Regression analysis was used to determine which type of knowledge was the best predictor of student achievement. The 4 course instructors were interviewed and their comments analyzed.

RESULTS

Prior knowledge from previous courses significantly influenced student achievement. Procedural knowledge was especially related to student achievement. Instructors and students had mainly positive reactions towards the prior-knowledge tests.

CONCLUSIONS

Students' prior knowledge should be taken into consideration in instructional design and curriculum planning. Furthermore, the results of prior-knowledge assessments may be used as a tool for student support in addressing areas of deficiency.

A laboratory exercise in capsule making

OBJECTIVE

To create and implement a compounding laboratory exercise utilizing a variety of techniques and equipment.

DESIGN

A 3-hour laboratory exercise on preparing compound prescriptions for capsules was developed and taught to first-year doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students. Students completed appropriate preparations and calculation of ingredients and prepared capsules using a hand-packing technique and a capsule-filling machine. The students then individually weighed the capsules and performed batch testing for uniformity.

ASSESSMENT

Ninety-six percent of the students who completed the laboratory performed the necessary calculations for machine-prepared capsules correctly and 100% completed the calculations for the hand-filled capsules correctly. With the hand-filled capsules, 100% of the students processed all 4 units within +/-5% of the stated capsule weight and capsules were deemed successful and accurate.

CONCLUSION

Students acquired a firm grasp of basic compounding techniques and the skills to prepare accurate, safe, and uniform dosage forms for patients.

Evaluation of an instructional model to teach clinically relevant medicinal chemistry in a campus and a distance pathway

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate an instructional model for teaching clinically relevant medicinal chemistry.

METHODS

An instructional model that uses Bloom's cognitive and Krathwohl's affective taxonomy, published and tested concepts in teaching medicinal chemistry, and active learning strategies, was introduced in the medicinal chemistry courses for second-professional year (P2) doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students (campus and distance) in the 2005-2006 academic year. Student learning and the overall effectiveness of the instructional model were assessed. Student performance after introducing the instructional model was compared to that in prior years.

RESULTS

Student performance on course examinations improved compared to previous years. Students expressed overall enthusiasm about the course and better understood the value of medicinal chemistry to clinical practice.

CONCLUSION

The explicit integration of the cognitive and affective learning objectives improved student performance, student ability to apply medicinal chemistry to clinical practice, and student attitude towards the discipline. Testing this instructional model provided validation to this theoretical framework. The model is effective for both our campus and distance-students. This instructional model may also have broad-based applications to other science courses.

Improving pharmacy students' understanding and long-term retention of acid-base chemistry

Despite repeated exposure to the principles underlying the behavior of organic acids and bases in aqueous solution, some pharmacy students remain confused about the topic of acid-base chemistry. Since a majority of organic drug molecules have acid-base character, the ability to predict their reactivity and the extent to which they will ionize in a given medium is paramount to students' understanding of essentially all aspects of drug action in vivo and in vitro. This manuscript presents a medicinal chemistry lesson in the fundamentals of acid-base chemistry that many pharmacy students have found enlightening and clarifying.

Medicinal chemistry and therapeutic relevance of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors

Chemical Basis of Drug Action (PHA337 and PHA447) is a required 2-semester course sequence taught to second-professional year pharmacy students at Creighton University in both the campus and distance-education pathways. The course emphasizes integration of previous content, critical thinking, and therapeutic relevance. The content and learning experiences are organized to transition the students' thinking through a constructive process that provides ample opportunities to recall and integrate previous knowledge, learn and apply new knowledge, establish a logical connection between the science and its therapeutic relevance, and finally to apply the science knowledge to predict clinical activity and clinical outcomes as can be expected in a patient. This manuscript is based on the angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors as an illustration of how our course objectives are accomplished.