1
|
Pawar P. World's cholera vaccine stash is empty-but relief is on its way. Science 2024; 383:939-940. [PMID: 38422136 DOI: 10.1126/science.ado9327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
A dramatic shortage of the oral vaccine may ease in the years ahead as more companies enter the market.
Collapse
|
2
|
Abstract
Vaccination is a key intervention to prevent and control cholera in conjunction with water, sanitation and hygiene activities. An oral cholera vaccine (OCV) stockpile was established by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2013. We reviewed its use from July 2013 to all of 2018 in order to assess its role in cholera control. We computed information related to OCV deployments and campaigns conducted including setting, target population, timelines, delivery strategy, reported adverse events, coverage achieved, and costs. In 2013-2018, a total of 83,509,941 OCV doses have been requested by 24 countries, of which 55,409,160 were approved and 36,066,010 eventually shipped in 83 deployments, resulting in 104 vaccination campaigns in 22 countries. OCVs had in general high uptake (mean administrative coverage 1st dose campaign at 90.3%; 2nd dose campaign at 88.2%; mean survey-estimated two-dose coverage at 69.9%, at least one dose at 84.6%) No serious adverse events were reported. Campaigns were organized quickly (five days median duration). In emergency settings, the longest delay was from the occurrence of the emergency to requesting OCV (median: 26 days). The mean cost of administering one dose of vaccine was 2.98 USD. The OCV stockpile is an important public health resource. OCVs were generally well accepted by the population and their use demonstrated to be safe and feasible in all settings. OCV was an inexpensive intervention, although timing was a limiting factor for emergency use. The dynamic created by the establishment of the OCV stockpile has played a role in the increased use of the vaccine by setting in motion a virtuous cycle by which better monitoring and evaluation leads to better campaign organization, better cholera control, and more requests being generated. Further work is needed to improve timeliness of response and contextualize strategies for OCV delivery in the various settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Pezzoli
- Cholera Team/Focal Point for Vaccination, Infectious Hazard Management (IHM), World Health Organization, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Sharp A, Blake A, Backx J, Panunzi I, Barrais R, Nackers F, Luquero F, Deslouches YG, Cohuet S. High cholera vaccination coverage following emergency campaign in Haiti: Results from a cluster survey in three rural Communes in the South Department, 2017. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0007967. [PMID: 32004316 PMCID: PMC7015427 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Oral cholera vaccine (OCV) has increasingly been used as an outbreak control measure, but vaccine shortages limit its application. A two-dose OCV campaign targeting residents aged over 1 year was launched in three rural Communes of Southern Haiti during an outbreak following Hurricane Matthew in October 2016. Door-to-door and fixed-site strategies were employed and mobile teams delivered vaccines to hard-to-reach communities. This was the first campaign to use the recently pre-qualified OCV, Euvichol. The study objective was to estimate post-campaign vaccination coverage in order to evaluate the campaign and guide future outbreak control strategies. We conducted a cluster survey with sampling based on random GPS points. We identified clusters of five households and included all members eligible for vaccination. Local residents collected data through face-to-face interviews. Coverage was estimated, accounting for the clustered sampling, and 95% confidence intervals calculated. 435 clusters, 2,100 households and 9,086 people were included (99% response rate). Across the three communes respectively, coverage by recall was: 80.7% (95% CI:76.8–84.1), 82.6% (78.1–86.4), and 82.3% (79.0–85.2) for two doses and 94.2% (90.8–96.4), 91.8% (87–94.9), and 93.8% (90.8–95.9) for at least one dose. Coverage varied by less than 9% across age groups and was similar among males and females. Participants obtained vaccines from door-to-door vaccinators (53%) and fixed sites (47%). Most participants heard about the campaign through community ‘criers’ (58%). Despite hard-to-reach communities, high coverage was achieved in all areas through combining different vaccine delivery strategies and extensive community mobilisation. Emergency OCV campaigns are a viable option for outbreak control and where possible multiple strategies should be used in combination. Euvichol will help alleviate the OCV shortage but effectiveness studies in outbreaks should be done. After Hurricane Matthew hit Southern Haiti on October 4, 2016, there was an outbreak of Cholera. The Government launched a campaign to vaccinate residents using an oral vaccine, which has been proven to protect people against the disease. MSF supported the campaign in three rural areas, offering the vaccine in local clinics and going from door to door. We didn’t know how many people were living there at the time so we couldn’t say for sure if we had vaccinated enough people. To find out how many people were vaccinated we did a survey, choosing households at random and asking them if and where they received the vaccine. This showed that on average around 90% of people were vaccinated, which is a very high proportion. We can take encouragement from this that mass vaccination campaigns like this can work well, even in rural settings. Our survey showed that about half of people got their vaccine from a clinic and the other half from door-to-door vaccinators, so it’s probably important to use both approaches. Most people heard about the campaign through members of the local community called ‘criers’. This shows how important it is to engage with the local community during a vaccination campaign.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Sharp
- Field Epidemiology Training Programme, Public Health England, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Jérôme Backx
- Operational Centre Brussels, Médecins Sans Frontières, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Isabella Panunzi
- Operational Centre Brussels, Médecins Sans Frontières, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Robert Barrais
- Ministère de la Santé Publique et de la Population, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Peak CM, Reilly AL, Azman AS, Buckee CO. Prolonging herd immunity to cholera via vaccination: Accounting for human mobility and waning vaccine effects. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006257. [PMID: 29489815 PMCID: PMC5847240 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Revised: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oral cholera vaccination is an approach to preventing outbreaks in at-risk settings and controlling cholera in endemic settings. However, vaccine-derived herd immunity may be short-lived due to interactions between human mobility and imperfect or waning vaccine efficacy. As the supply and utilization of oral cholera vaccines grows, critical questions related to herd immunity are emerging, including: who should be targeted; when should revaccination be performed; and why have cholera outbreaks occurred in recently vaccinated populations? METHODS AND FINDINGS We use mathematical models to simulate routine and mass oral cholera vaccination in populations with varying degrees of migration, transmission intensity, and vaccine coverage. We show that migration and waning vaccine efficacy strongly influence the duration of herd immunity while birth and death rates have relatively minimal impacts. As compared to either periodic mass vaccination or routine vaccination alone, a community could be protected longer by a blended "Mass and Maintain" strategy. We show that vaccination may be best targeted at populations with intermediate degrees of mobility as compared to communities with very high or very low population turnover. Using a case study of an internally displaced person camp in South Sudan which underwent high-coverage mass vaccination in 2014 and 2015, we show that waning vaccine direct effects and high population turnover rendered the camp over 80% susceptible at the time of the cholera outbreak beginning in October 2016. CONCLUSIONS Oral cholera vaccines can be powerful tools for quickly protecting a population for a period of time that depends critically on vaccine coverage, vaccine efficacy over time, and the rate of population turnover through human mobility. Due to waning herd immunity, epidemics in vaccinated communities are possible but become less likely through complementary interventions or data-driven revaccination strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Corey M. Peak
- Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics, Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Amanda L. Reilly
- Department of Applied Mathematics, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Andrew S. Azman
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Caroline O. Buckee
- Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics, Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
|
6
|
Cholera vaccines: WHO position paper – August 2017. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2017; 92:477-98. [PMID: 28845659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
|
7
|
Deployments from the oral cholera vaccine stockpile, 2013–2017. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2017; 92:437-42. [PMID: 28799734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
|
8
|
Affiliation(s)
- Louise C Ivers
- From the Division of Global Health Equity, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston; and the Special Consulting Group to the Minister of Health and Population of Haiti, Port-au-Prince. The other members of the Special Consulting Group were Dr. Daphnee Delsoin Benoit, the Honorable Minister of Health and Population, Port-au-Prince, Haiti; Dr. Dennis Chao, Institute for Disease Modeling, Bellevue, WA; Dr. Donald Francois, Ministry of Health and Population, Port-au-Prince, Haiti; Dr. Jeannot Francois, Director of Expanded Program on Immunization, Ministry of Health and Population, Port-au-Prince, Haiti; Dr. Roger Glass, Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD; Dr. Robert Hall, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH; Dr. Jerome H. Kim, International Vaccine Institute, Seoul, South Korea; Dr. Bernard Liautaud, Ministry of Health, Port-au-Prince, Haiti; Prof. Ira Longini, University of Florida, Gainesville; Ms. Helen Matzger, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle; Dr. Vittal Mogasale, International Vaccine Institute, Seoul, South Korea; Prof. Glenn Morris, University of Florida, Gainesville; Prof. Jean W. Pape, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York; Prof. David Sack, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; and Dr. Jordan Tappero, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Thompson KM, Duintjer Tebbens RJ. Framework for Optimal Global Vaccine Stockpile Design for Vaccine-Preventable Diseases: Application to Measles and Cholera Vaccines as Contrasting Examples. Risk Anal 2016; 36:1487-1509. [PMID: 25109229 DOI: 10.1111/risa.12265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Managing the dynamics of vaccine supply and demand represents a significant challenge with very high stakes. Insufficient vaccine supplies can necessitate rationing, lead to preventable adverse health outcomes, delay the achievements of elimination or eradication goals, and/or pose reputation risks for public health authorities and/or manufacturers. This article explores the dynamics of global vaccine supply and demand to consider the opportunities to develop and maintain optimal global vaccine stockpiles for universal vaccines, characterized by large global demand (for which we use measles vaccines as an example), and nonuniversal (including new and niche) vaccines (for which we use oral cholera vaccine as an example). We contrast our approach with other vaccine stockpile optimization frameworks previously developed for the United States pediatric vaccine stockpile to address disruptions in supply and global emergency response vaccine stockpiles to provide on-demand vaccines for use in outbreaks. For measles vaccine, we explore the complexity that arises due to different formulations and presentations of vaccines, consideration of rubella, and the context of regional elimination goals. We conclude that global health policy leaders and stakeholders should procure and maintain appropriate global vaccine rotating stocks for measles and rubella vaccine now to support current regional elimination goals, and should probably also do so for other vaccines to help prevent and control endemic or epidemic diseases. This work suggests the need to better model global vaccine supplies to improve efficiency in the vaccine supply chain, ensure adequate supplies to support elimination and eradication initiatives, and support progress toward the goals of the Global Vaccine Action Plan.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly M Thompson
- Kid Risk, Inc, 10524 Moss Park Rd., Ste. 204-364, Orlando, FL, USA
- University of Central Florida, College of Medicine, Orlando, FL, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Revitalizing control efforts for cholera. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2015; 90:530-4. [PMID: 26433980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
|
11
|
Cholera, 2014. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2015; 90:517-28. [PMID: 26433979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
|
12
|
Cholera in Bangladesh. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2015; 90:539-42. [PMID: 26433983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
|
13
|
|
14
|
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Martin
- Control of Epidemic Diseases Unit, Pandemic and Epidemic Diseases Department, World Health Organization, 20 avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland
| | - Alejandro Costa
- Control of Epidemic Diseases Unit, Pandemic and Epidemic Diseases Department, World Health Organization, 20 avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland
| | - William Perea
- Control of Epidemic Diseases Unit, Pandemic and Epidemic Diseases Department, World Health Organization, 20 avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Affiliation(s)
- David A Sack
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MA 21205, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew K Waldor
- Channing Laboratory, Harvard Medical School, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Sur D, Lopez AL, Kanungo S, Paisley A, Manna B, Ali M, Niyogi SK, Park JK, Sarkar B, Puri MK, Kim DR, Deen JL, Holmgren J, Carbis R, Rao R, Nguyen TV, Donner A, Ganguly NK, Nair GB, Bhattacharya SK, Clemens JD. Efficacy and safety of a modified killed-whole-cell oral cholera vaccine in India: an interim analysis of a cluster-randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2009; 374:1694-702. [PMID: 19819004 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(09)61297-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oral cholera vaccines consisting of killed whole cells have been available for many years, but they have not been used extensively in populations with endemic disease. An inexpensive, locally produced oral killed-whole-cell vaccine has been used in high-risk areas in Vietnam. To expand the use of this vaccine, it was modified to comply with WHO standards. We assessed the efficacy and safety of this modified vaccine in a population with endemic cholera. METHODS In this double-blind trial, 107 774 non-pregnant residents of Kolkata, India, aged 1 year or older, were cluster-randomised by dwelling to receive two doses of either modified killed-whole-cell cholera vaccine (n=52 212; 1966 clusters) or heat-killed Escherichia coli K12 placebo (n=55 562; 1967 clusters), both delivered orally. Randomisation was done by computer-generated sequence in blocks of four. The primary endpoint was prevention of episodes of culture-confirmed Vibrio cholerae O1 diarrhoea severe enough for the patient to seek treatment in a health-care facility. We undertook an interim, per-protocol analysis at 2 years of follow-up that included individuals who received two completely ingested doses of vaccine or placebo. We assessed first episodes of cholera that occurred between 14 days and 730 days after receipt of the second dose. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00289224. FINDINGS 31 932 participants assigned to vaccine (1721 clusters) and 34 968 assigned to placebo (1757 clusters) received two doses of study treatment. There were 20 episodes of cholera in the vaccine group and 68 episodes in the placebo group (protective efficacy 67%; one-tailed 99% CI, lower bound 35%, p<0.0001). The vaccine protected individuals in age-groups 1.0-4.9 years, 5.0-14.9 years, and 15 years and older, and protective efficacy did not differ significantly between age-groups (p=0.28). We recorded no vaccine-related serious adverse events. INTERPRETATION This modified killed-whole-cell oral vaccine, compliant with WHO standards, is safe, provides protection against clinically significant cholera in an endemic setting, and can be used in children aged 1.0-4.9 years, who are at highest risk of developing cholera in endemic settings. FUNDING Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Governments of South Korea, Sweden, and Kuwait.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dipika Sur
- National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Kim D, Canh DG, Poulos C, Thoa LTK, Cook J, Hoa NT, Nyamete A, Thuy DTD, Deen J, Clemens J, Thiem VD, Anh DD, Whittington D. Private demand for cholera vaccines in Hue, Vietnam. Value Health 2008; 11:119-128. [PMID: 18237366 DOI: 10.1111/j.1524-4733.2007.00220.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aims to measure the private demand for oral cholera vaccines in Hue, Vietnam, an area of relatively low endemicity of cholera, using the contingent valuation method. METHODS Interviews were conducted with either the head of household or spouse in 800 randomly selected households with children less than 18 years old. Respondents were asked whether they would purchase an oral cholera vaccine with different levels of effectiveness and durations of effectiveness (both for themselves and for other household members) at a specified price. RESULTS The median respondent willingness to pay for 50% effective/3-year vaccine was estimated to be approximately $5, although 17% of the study sample would not pay for a cholera vaccine. The median economic benefit to a household of vaccinating all household members against cholera, as measured by its stated willingness to pay, was estimated to be $40 for a vaccine with these attributes. CONCLUSIONS The perceived private economic benefits of a cholera vaccine were high, but not evenly distributed across the population. A minority of the people in Hue place no value on receiving a cholera vaccine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dohyeong Kim
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Islam Z, Maskery B, Nyamete A, Horowitz MS, Yunus M, Whittington D. Private demand for cholera vaccines in rural Matlab, Bangladesh. Health Policy 2007; 85:184-95. [PMID: 17822799 DOI: 10.1016/j.healthpol.2007.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2007] [Revised: 07/09/2007] [Accepted: 07/15/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To estimate household willingness to pay (WTP) for cholera vaccines in a rural area of Bangladesh, which had participated in a 1985 oral cholera vaccine trial. METHODS A contingent valuation study was undertaken in Matlab, Bangladesh in summer 2005. All respondents (N=591) received a description of a cholera vaccine that was 50% effective for 3 years and had negligible side effects. Respondents were asked how many vaccines they would purchase for their household at randomly pre-assigned prices. Negative binomial regression models were used to estimate the number of vaccines demanded and to calculate average WTP. RESULTS On average, respondents were willing to pay about US$ 9.50 to purchase vaccines for all members of their household (i.e. US$ 1.70 per vaccine). Average WTP per person is US$ 2.40 for young children (1-4 years), US$ 1.20 for school-age children, and US$ 1.05 for adults. Median WTP estimates are significantly smaller: US$ 1.00 for young children, US$ 0.05 for schoolchildren, and US$ 0 for adults. CONCLUSIONS There is significant demand for cholera vaccines in Matlab at low prices. Recent herd protection research suggests that unvaccinated persons would also experience reduced incidence via indirect effects at low coverage rates associated with moderate vaccine prices.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ziaul Islam
- Health Systems & Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Parment PA. [Cholera and vaccine]. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 2006; 126:2986. [PMID: 17117205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023] Open
|
21
|
|
22
|
|
23
|
Hainsworth T. The value of cholera vaccination in promoting travel health. Nurs Times 2004; 100:30-1. [PMID: 15195540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
Cholera is a diarrhoeal disease caused by intestinal infection with Vibrio cholerae bacterium (Health Protection Agency, 2004). Travellers are now able to obtain a cholera vaccine in the UK. Although cholera is rare in travellers from the UK, its potential severity is a cause for concern. Nurses will need to consider the availability of this new vaccine when providing health promotion to travellers.
Collapse
|
24
|
Ivanoff B, Chaignat CL. [Anticholera vaccines and vaccination]. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 2002; 95:355-8. [PMID: 12696375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
Cholera is still an important diarrhoeal disease in developing countries. The impact of cholera out-break is tremendous for a country at human and economic level. WHO estimates that diarrhoeal diseases cause about 2.8 million deaths per year in developing countries. Officially, cholera is causing around 120,000 deaths per year. The poorest population (from slums and refugee camps) are the most vulnerable target for cholera infection. Development of simple cheap and effective vaccine is highly recommended. This article aims at giving an update on the currently available and future vaccines for the prevention of diarrhoea due to Vibrio cholerae O1 and O139.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B Ivanoff
- International Vaccine Institute, PO Box 14, Kwanak, Séoul, Corée
| | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Milstien JB, Evans P, Batson A. Cholera vaccines: lessons from Rwanda and elsewhere. Lancet 1997; 349:957-8. [PMID: 9093280 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(05)62740-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
|
26
|
Lennholm B. [A Swedish cholera vaccine is ready for international introduction. Cholera B-subunit is also the basis in other vaccines]. Lakartidningen 1994; 91:3891-3. [PMID: 7967956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
|
27
|
Lennholm B. [A vaccine against E coli diarrhea is ready. Clinical trials indicate good results]. Lakartidningen 1994; 91:3893-4. [PMID: 7967957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
|
28
|
[PAHO in action today: the case of cholera]. Bol Oficina Sanit Panam 1992; 113:373-80. [PMID: 1296673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
|
29
|
Cholera vaccine evaluation. Epidemiol Bull 1991; 12:11-4. [PMID: 1911067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
|
30
|
Editorial: The menace of cholera. Lancet 1974; 2:765-6. [PMID: 4143024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|
31
|
|
32
|
Oberdoerster F, Glathe H, Thilo W. [Comments of the article by P. Hengst: "Vaccination and pregnancy", published in No. 21, 1972, of this journal]. Z Arztl Fortbild (Jena) 1974; 68:29-32. [PMID: 4837154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
33
|
|
34
|
Cholera vaccine: cupboard almost bare. Nature 1971; 231:344. [PMID: 4932495 DOI: 10.1038/231344a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
|
35
|
Cholera prophylaxis is plumbing and prosperity. Nature 1971; 231:341. [PMID: 4932494 DOI: 10.1038/231341a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
|