A Novel Interaction Between RAD23A/B and Y-family DNA Polymerases

The Y-family DNA polymerases - Pol ι, Pol η, Pol κ and Rev1 - are most well-known for their roles in the DNA damage tolerance pathway of translesion synthesis (TLS). They function to overcome replication barriers by bypassing DNA damage lesions that cannot be normally replicated, allowing replication forks to continue without stalling. In this work, we demonstrate a novel interaction between each Y-family polymerase and the nucleotide excision repair (NER) proteins, RAD23A and RAD23B. We initially focus on the interaction between RAD23A and Pol ι, and through a series of biochemical, cell-based, and structural assays, find that the RAD23A ubiquitin-binding domains (UBA1 and UBA2) interact with separate sites within the Pol ι catalytic domain. While this interaction involves the ubiquitin-binding cleft of UBA2, Pol ι interacts with a distinct surface on UBA1. We further find that mutating or deleting either UBA domain disrupts the RAD23A-Pol ι interaction, demonstrating that both interactions are necessary for stable binding. We also provide evidence that both RAD23 proteins interact with Pol ι in a similar manner, as well as with each of the Y-family polymerases. These results shed light on the interplay between the different functions of the RAD23 proteins and reveal novel binding partners for the Y-family TLS polymerases.

1H, 15N, 13C resonance assignments for proteasome shuttle factor hHR23a

hHR23a (human homolog of Rad23 a) functions in nucleotide excision repair and proteasome-mediated protein degradation. It contains an N-terminal ubiquitin-like (UBL) domain, an xeroderma pigmentosum C (XPC)-binding domain, and a ubiquitin-associated (UBA) domain preceding and following the XPC-binding domain. Each of the four structural domains are connected by flexible linker regions. We report in this NMR study, the 1H, 15N and 13C resonance assignments for the backbone and sidechain atoms of the hHR23a full-length protein with BioMagResBank accession number 52059. Assignments are 97% and 87% for the backbone (NH, N, C', Cα, and Hα) and sidechain atoms of the hHR23a structured regions. The secondary structural elements predicted from the NMR data fit well to the hHR23a NMR structure. The assignments described in this manuscript can be used to apply NMR for studies of hHR23a with its binding partners.

Two-Step Validation Approach for Tools To Study the DNA Repair Enzyme SNM1A

We report a two-step validation approach to evaluate the suitability of metal-binding groups for targeting DNA damage-repair metalloenzymes using model enzyme SNM1A. A fragment-based screening approach was first used to identify metal-binding fragments suitable for targeting the enzyme. Effective fragments were then incorporated into oligonucleotides using the copper-catalysed azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction. These modified oligonucleotides were recognised by SNM1A at >1000-fold lower concentrations than their fragment counterparts. The exonuclease SNM1A is a key enzyme involved in the repair of interstrand crosslinks, a highly cytotoxic form of DNA damage. However, SNM1A and other enzymes of this class are poorly understood, as there is a lack of tools available to facilitate their study. Our novel approach of incorporating functional fragments into oligonucleotides is broadly applicable to generating modified oligonucleotide structures with high affinity for DNA damage-repair enzymes.

Every protagonist has a sidekick: Structural aspects of human xeroderma pigmentosum-binding proteins in nucleotide excision repair

The seven xeroderma pigmentosum proteins (XPps), XPA-XPG, coordinate the nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway, promoting the excision of DNA lesions caused by exposition to ionizing radiation, majorly from ultraviolet light. Significant efforts are made to investigate NER since mutations in any of the seven XPps may cause the xeroderma pigmentosum and trichothiodystrophy diseases. However, these proteins collaborate with other pivotal players in all known NER steps to accurately exert their purposes. Therefore, in the old and ever-evolving field of DNA repair, it is imperative to reexamine and describe their structures to understand NER properly. This work provides an up-to-date review of the protein structural aspects of the closest partners that directly interact and influence XPps: RAD23B, CETN2, DDB1, RPA (RPA70, 32, and 14), p8 (GTF2H5), and ERCC1. Structurally and functionally vital domains, regions, and critical residues are reexamined, providing structural lessons and perspectives about these indispensable proteins in the NER and other DNA repair pathways. By gathering all data related to the major human xeroderma pigmentosum-interacting proteins, this review will aid newcomers on the subject and guide structural and functional future studies.

A role for the Cockayne Syndrome B (CSB)-Elongin ubiquitin ligase complex in signal-dependent RNA polymerase II transcription

The Elongin complex was originally identified as an RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) elongation factor and subsequently as the substrate recognition component of a Cullin-RING E3 ubiquitin ligase. More recent evidence indicates that the Elongin ubiquitin ligase assembles with the Cockayne syndrome B helicase (CSB) in response to DNA damage and can target stalled polymerases for ubiquitylation and removal from the genome. In this report, we present evidence that the CSB-Elongin ubiquitin ligase pathway has roles beyond the DNA damage response in the activation of RNAPII-mediated transcription. We observed that assembly of the CSB-Elongin ubiquitin ligase is induced not just by DNA damage, but also by a variety of signals that activate RNAPII-mediated transcription, including endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, amino acid starvation, retinoic acid, glucocorticoids, and doxycycline treatment of cells carrying several copies of a doxycycline-inducible reporter. Using glucocorticoid receptor (GR)-regulated genes as a model, we showed that glucocorticoid-induced transcription is accompanied by rapid recruitment of CSB and the Elongin ubiquitin ligase to target genes in a step that depends upon the presence of transcribing RNAPII on those genes. Consistent with the idea that the CSB-Elongin pathway plays a direct role in GR-regulated transcription, mouse cells lacking the Elongin subunit Elongin A exhibit delays in both RNAPII accumulation on and dismissal from target genes following glucocorticoid addition and withdrawal, respectively. Taken together, our findings bring to light a new role for the CSB-Elongin pathway in RNAPII-mediated transcription.

The Winged Helix Domain of CSB Regulates RNAPII Occupancy at Promoter Proximal Pause Sites

Cockayne syndrome group B protein (CSB), a member of the SWI/SNF superfamily, resides in an elongating RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) complex and regulates transcription elongation. CSB contains a C-terminal winged helix domain (WHD) that binds to ubiquitin and plays an important role in DNA repair. However, little is known about the role of the CSB-WHD in transcription regulation. Here, we report that CSB is dependent upon its WHD to regulate RNAPII abundance at promoter proximal pause (PPP) sites of several actively transcribed genes, a key step in the regulation of transcription elongation. We show that two ubiquitin binding-defective mutations in the CSB-WHD, which impair CSB's ability to promote cell survival in response to treatment with cisplatin, have little impact on its ability to stimulate RNAPII occupancy at PPP sites. In addition, we demonstrate that two cancer-associated CSB mutations, which are located on the opposite side of the CSB-WHD away from its ubiquitin-binding pocket, impair CSB's ability to promote RNAPII occupancy at PPP sites. Taken together, these results suggest that CSB promotes RNAPII association with PPP sites in a manner requiring the CSB-WHD but independent of its ubiquitin-binding activity. These results further imply that CSB-mediated RNAPII occupancy at PPP sites is mechanistically separable from CSB-mediated repair of cisplatin-induced DNA damage.

Development of MTH1-Binding Nucleotide Analogs Based on 7,8-Dihalogenated 7-Deaza-dG Derivatives

MTH1 is an enzyme that hydrolyzes 8-oxo-dGTP, which is an oxidatively damaged nucleobase, into 8-oxo-dGMP in nucleotide pools to prevent its mis-incorporation into genomic DNA. Selective and potent MTH1-binding molecules have potential as biological tools and drug candidates. We recently developed 8-halogenated 7-deaza-dGTP as an 8-oxo-dGTP mimic and found that it was not hydrolyzed, but inhibited enzyme activity. To further increase MTH1 binding, we herein designed and synthesized 7,8-dihalogenated 7-deaza-dG derivatives. We successfully synthesized multiple derivatives, including substituted nucleosides and nucleotides, using 7-deaza-dG as a starting material. Evaluations of the inhibition of MTH1 activity revealed the strong inhibitory effects on enzyme activity of the 7,8-dihalogenated 7-deaza-dG derivatives, particularly 7,8-dibromo 7-daza-dGTP. Based on the results obtained on kinetic parameters and from computational docking simulating studies, these nucleotide analogs interacted with the active site of MTH1 and competitively inhibited the substrate 8-oxodGTP. Therefore, novel properties of repair enzymes in cells may be elucidated using new compounds.

Tobacco Smoke Carcinogens Induce DNA Repair Machinery Function Loss: Protection by Carbon Nanotubes

PURPOSE

DNA damage is a continuous process occurring within the cells caused by intrinsic and extrinsic factors, but it gets repaired regularly. If the DNA repair process is faulty, the incidences of damages/mutations can accumulate in cells resulting in cell transformation. It is hypothesized that the negative variations in DNA repair pathways in even at one point viz. genetic, translational or posttranslational stage may fairly be crucial for the beginning and development of carcinogenesis. Therefore, we investigated the potential of tobacco specific nitrosamines (TSNs) related carcinogens to interact with the enzymes involved in DNA repair mechanisms in the current study.

METHODS

The derivatives of cigarettes' smoke like NNK and NNAL are very well known and recognized carcinogens. Therefore, almost 120 enzymes playing crucial role in the DNA repair process have been analysed for their reactivity with NNK and NNAL.

RESULTS

The molecular docking study helped to screen out,  07 possible DNA repair enzyme targets for NNK, and 12for NNAL. Present study revealed the loss of activity of DNA repair enzymes in the presence of NNK and NNAL, and this accumulation may induce the tendency of DNA damage which can lead the transformation of exposed normal cells in to cancerous cells. This study also demonstrated the protective potential of nanoparticles like SWCNTs/MWCNTs against TSN's induced toxicity; here SWCNT against NNK (-17.16 Kcal/Mol) and MWCNT against NNK -17.01 Kcal/Mol were showing maximum binding affinities than the known biomolecular target of NNK 1UGH (Uracil-DNA glycosylase,-7.82Kcal/Mol).

CONCLUSION

CNTs can be applied as chemo-preventive agents against environmental and tobacco induced carcinogens owing to their scavenging potential and warrants for in vivo and in vitro experimental validation of the results obtained from the present study.
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Multiple crystal forms of human MacroD2

MacroD2 is one of the three human macrodomain proteins characterized by their protein-linked mono-ADP-ribosyl-hydrolyzing activity. MacroD2 is a single-domain protein that contains a deep ADP-ribose-binding groove. In this study, new crystallization conditions for MacroD2 were found and three crystal structures of human MacroD2 in the apo state were solved in space groups P41212, P43212 and P43, and refined at 1.75, 1.90 and 1.70 Å resolution, respectively. Structural comparison of the apo crystal structures with the previously reported crystal structure of MacroD2 in complex with ADP-ribose revealed conformational changes in the side chains of Val101, Ile189 and Phe224 induced by the binding of ADP-ribose in the active site. These conformational variations may potentially facilitate design efforts of a MacroD2 inhibitor.

A novel Cas9-targeted long-read assay for simultaneous detection of IDH1/2 mutations and clinically relevant MGMT methylation in fresh biopsies of diffuse glioma

Molecular biomarkers provide both diagnostic and prognostic results for patients with diffuse glioma, the most common primary brain tumor in adults. Here, we used a long-read nanopore-based sequencing technique to simultaneously assess IDH mutation status and MGMT methylation level in 4 human cell lines and 8 fresh human brain tumor biopsies. Currently, these biomarkers are assayed separately, and results can take days to weeks. We demonstrated the use of nanopore Cas9-targeted sequencing (nCATS) to identify IDH1 and IDH2 mutations within 36 h and compared this approach against currently used clinical methods. nCATS was also able to simultaneously provide high-resolution evaluation of MGMT methylation levels not only at the promoter region, as with currently used methods, but also at CpGs across the proximal promoter region, the entirety of exon 1, and a portion of intron 1. We compared the methylation levels of all CpGs to MGMT expression in all cell lines and tumors and observed a positive correlation between intron 1 methylation and MGMT expression. Finally, we identified single nucleotide variants in 3 target loci. This pilot study demonstrates the feasibility of using nCATS as a clinical tool for cancer precision medicine.

MutT homologue 1 (MTH1) removes N6-methyl-dATP from the dNTP pool

MutT homologue 1 (MTH1) removes oxidized nucleotides from the nucleotide pool and thereby prevents their incorporation into the genome and thereby reduces genotoxicity. We previously reported that MTH1 is an efficient catalyst of O6-methyl-dGTP hydrolysis suggesting that MTH1 may also sanitize the nucleotide pool from other methylated nucleotides. We here show that MTH1 efficiently catalyzes the hydrolysis of N6-methyl-dATP to N6-methyl-dAMP and further report that N6-methylation of dATP drastically increases the MTH1 activity. We also observed MTH1 activity with N6-methyl-ATP, albeit at a lower level. We show that N6-methyl-dATP is incorporated into DNA in vivo, as indicated by increased N6-methyl-dA DNA levels in embryos developed from MTH1 knock-out zebrafish eggs microinjected with N6-methyl-dATP compared with noninjected embryos. N6-methyl-dATP activity is present in MTH1 homologues from distantly related vertebrates, suggesting evolutionary conservation and indicating that this activity is important. Of note, N6-methyl-dATP activity is unique to MTH1 among related NUDIX hydrolases. Moreover, we present the structure of N6-methyl-dAMP-bound human MTH1, revealing that the N6-methyl group is accommodated within a hydrophobic active-site subpocket explaining why N6-methyl-dATP is a good MTH1 substrate. N6-methylation of DNA and RNA has been reported to have epigenetic roles and to affect mRNA metabolism. We propose that MTH1 acts in concert with adenosine deaminase-like protein isoform 1 (ADAL1) to prevent incorporation of N6-methyl-(d)ATP into DNA and RNA. This would hinder potential dysregulation of epigenetic control and RNA metabolism via conversion of N6-methyl-(d)ATP to N6-methyl-(d)AMP, followed by ADAL1-catalyzed deamination producing (d)IMP that can enter the nucleotide salvage pathway.

Complete 1H, 13C, 15N resonance assignments and secondary structure of the Vpr binding region of hHR23A (residues 223-363)

Comprehensive resonance assignments and delineation of the secondary structure elements of the C-terminal Vpr-binding region of hHR23A, residues 223-363, were achieved by triple-resonance NMR experiments on uniformly ¹³C,¹⁵N-labeled protein. Assignments are 100% and > 95% complete for backbone and side-chain resonances, respectively. This data constitutes important complementary information for our ongoing structure determination of the Vpr-hHR23A(223-363) complex. At high concentrations, severe line-broadening was observed for several residues in the ¹H-¹⁵N HSQC spectrum, most likely resulting from inter-molecular interactions.

Computational characterization of the binding mode between oncoprotein Ets-1 and DNA-repair enzymes

The Ets-1 oncoprotein is a transcription factor that promotes target gene expression in specific biological processes. Typically, Ets-1 activity is low in healthy cells, but elevated levels of expression have been found in cancerous cells, specifically related to tumor progression. Like the vast majority of the cellular effectors, Ets-1 does not act alone but in association with partners. Given the important role that is attributed to Ets-1 in major human diseases, it is crucial to identify its partners and characterize their interactions. In this context, two DNA-repair enzymes, PARP-1 and DNA-PK, have been identified recently as interaction partners of Ets-1. We here identify their binding mode by means of protein docking. The results identify the interacting surface between Ets-1 and the two DNA-repair enzymes centered on the α-helix H1 of the ETS domain, leaving α-helix H3 available to bind DNA. The models highlight a hydrophobic patch on Ets-1 at the center of the interaction interface that includes three tryptophans (Trp338, Trp356, and Trp361). We rationalize the binding mode using a series of computational analyses, including alanine scanning, molecular dynamics simulation, and residue centrality analysis. Our study constitutes a first but important step in the characterization, at the molecular level, of the interaction between an oncoprotein and DNA-repair enzymes.

The polynucleotide kinase 3'-phosphatase gene (PNKP) is involved in Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT2B2) previously related to MED25

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT) represents a heterogeneous group of hereditary peripheral neuropathies. We previously reported a CMT locus on chromosome 19q13.3 segregating with the disease in a large Costa Rican family with axonal neuropathy and autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance (CMT2B2). We proposed a homozygous missense variant in the Mediator complex 25 (MED25) gene as causative of the disease. Nevertheless, the fact that no other CMT individuals with MED25 variants were reported to date led us to reevaluate the original family. Using exome sequencing, we now identified a homozygous nonsense variant (p.Gln517ter) in the last exon of an adjacent gene, the polynucleotide kinase 3'-phosphatase (PNKP) gene. It encodes a DNA repair protein recently associated with recessive ataxia with oculomotor apraxia type 4 (AOA4) and microcephaly, seizures, and developmental delay (MCSZ). Subsequently, five unrelated Costa Rican CMT2 subjects initially identified as being heterozygous for the same MED25 variant were found to be also compound heterozygote for PNKP. All were heterozygous for the same variant found homozygous in the large family and a second one previously associated with ataxia (p.Thr408del). Detailed clinical reassessment of the initial family and the new individuals revealed in all an adult-onset slowly progressive CMT2 associated with signs of cerebellar dysfunction such as slurred speech and oculomotor involvement, but neither microcephaly, seizures, nor developmental delay. We propose that PKNP variants are the major causative variant for the CMT2 phenotype in these individuals and that the milder clinical manifestation is due to an allelic effect.

Fluorescent Probes of DNA Repair

DNA repair is now understood to play a key role in a variety of disease states, most notably cancer. Tools for studying DNA have typically relied on traditional biochemical methods which are often laborious and indirect. Efforts to study the biology and therapeutic relevance of DNA repair pathways can be limited by such methods. Recently, specific fluorescent probes have been developed to aid in the study of DNA repair. Fluorescent probes offer the advantage of being able to directly assay for DNA repair activity in a simple, mix-and-measure format. This review will summarize the distinct classes of probe designs and their potential utility in varied research and preclinical settings.

The MRE11-RAD50-NBS1 Complex Conducts the Orchestration of Damage Signaling and Outcomes to Stress in DNA Replication and Repair

Genomic instability in disease and its fidelity in health depend on the DNA damage response (DDR), regulated in part from the complex of meiotic recombination 11 homolog 1 (MRE11), ATP-binding cassette-ATPase (RAD50), and phosphopeptide-binding Nijmegen breakage syndrome protein 1 (NBS1). The MRE11-RAD50-NBS1 (MRN) complex forms a multifunctional DDR machine. Within its network assemblies, MRN is the core conductor for the initial and sustained responses to DNA double-strand breaks, stalled replication forks, dysfunctional telomeres, and viral DNA infection. MRN can interfere with cancer therapy and is an attractive target for precision medicine. Its conformations change the paradigm whereby kinases initiate damage sensing. Delineated results reveal kinase activation, posttranslational targeting, functional scaffolding, conformations storing binding energy and enabling access, interactions with hub proteins such as replication protein A (RPA), and distinct networks at DNA breaks and forks. MRN biochemistry provides prototypic insights into how it initiates, implements, and regulates multifunctional responses to genomic stress.

A dynamic allosteric pathway underlies Rad50 ABC ATPase function in DNA repair

The Mre11-Rad50 protein complex is an initial responder to sites of DNA double strand breaks. Many studies have shown that ATP binding to Rad50 causes global changes to the Mre11-Rad50 structure, which are important for DNA repair functions. Here we used methyl-based NMR spectroscopy on a series of mutants to describe a dynamic allosteric pathway within Rad50. Mutations result in changes in the side chain methyl group chemical environment that are correlated with altered nanosecond timescale dynamics. We also observe striking relationships between the magnitude of chemical shift perturbations and Rad50 and Mre11 activities. Together, these data suggest an equilibrium between a ground state and an "active" dimerization competent state of Rad50 that has locally altered structure and dynamics and is poised for ATP-induced dimerization and eventual ATP hydrolysis. Thus, this sparsely populated intermediate is critical for Mre11-Rad50-directed DNA double strand break repair.

Drosophila DNA polymerase theta utilizes both helicase-like and polymerase domains during microhomology-mediated end joining and interstrand crosslink repair

Double strand breaks (DSBs) and interstrand crosslinks (ICLs) are toxic DNA lesions that can be repaired through multiple pathways, some of which involve shared proteins. One of these proteins, DNA Polymerase θ (Pol θ), coordinates a mutagenic DSB repair pathway named microhomology-mediated end joining (MMEJ) and is also a critical component for bypass or repair of ICLs in several organisms. Pol θ contains both polymerase and helicase-like domains that are tethered by an unstructured central region. While the role of the polymerase domain in promoting MMEJ has been studied extensively both in vitro and in vivo, a function for the helicase-like domain, which possesses DNA-dependent ATPase activity, remains unclear. Here, we utilize genetic and biochemical analyses to examine the roles of the helicase-like and polymerase domains of Drosophila Pol θ. We demonstrate an absolute requirement for both polymerase and ATPase activities during ICL repair in vivo. However, similar to mammalian systems, polymerase activity, but not ATPase activity, is required for ionizing radiation-induced DSB repair. Using a site-specific break repair assay, we show that overall end-joining efficiency is not affected in ATPase-dead mutants, but there is a significant decrease in templated insertion events. In vitro, Pol θ can efficiently bypass a model unhooked nitrogen mustard crosslink and promote DNA synthesis following microhomology annealing, although ATPase activity is not required for these functions. Together, our data illustrate the functional importance of the helicase-like domain of Pol θ and suggest that its tethering to the polymerase domain is important for its multiple functions in DNA repair and damage tolerance.

Error-prone DNA Polymerase θ (Pol θ) plays a conserved role in a mutagenic DNA double-strand break repair mechanism called microhomology-mediated end joining (MMEJ). In many organisms, it also participates in a process crucial to the removal/repair of DNA interstrand crosslinks. The exact mechanism by which Pol θ promotes these processes is unclear, but a clue may lie in its dual-domain structure. While the role of its polymerase domain has been well-studied, the function of its helicase-like domain remains an open question. Here we report an absolute requirement for ATPase activity of the helicase-like domain during interstrand crosslink repair in Drosophila melanogaster. We also find that although end joining frequency does not decrease in ATPase-dead mutants, ATPase activity is critical for generating templated insertions. Using purified Pol θ protein, we show that it can bypass synthetic substrates mimicking interstrand crosslink intermediates and can promote MMEJ-like reactions with partial double-stranded and single-stranded DNA. Together, these data demonstrate a novel function for the helicase-like domain of Pol θ in both interstrand crosslink repair and MMEJ and provide insight into why the dual-domain structure has been conserved throughout evolution.

Rad50 ATPase activity is regulated by DNA ends and requires coordination of both active sites

The Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1(Xrs2) (MRN/X) complex is critical for the repair and signaling of DNA double strand breaks. The catalytic core of MRN/X comprised of the Mre11 nuclease and Rad50 adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) active sites dimerizes through association between the Rad50 ATPase catalytic domains and undergoes extensive conformational changes upon ATP binding. This ATP-bound 'closed' state promotes binding to DNA, tethering DNA ends and ATM activation, but prevents nucleolytic processing of DNA ends, while ATP hydrolysis is essential for Mre11 endonuclease activity at blocked DNA ends. Here we investigate the regulation of ATP hydrolysis as well as the interdependence of the two functional active sites. We find that double-stranded DNA stimulates ATP hydrolysis by hMRN over ∼20-fold in an end-dependent manner. Using catalytic site mutants to create Rad50 dimers with only one functional ATPase site, we find that both ATPase sites are required for the stimulation by DNA. MRN-mediated endonucleolytic cleavage of DNA at sites of protein adducts requires ATP hydrolysis at both sites, as does the stimulation of ATM kinase activity. These observations suggest that symmetrical engagement of the Rad50 catalytic head domains with ATP bound at both sites is important for MRN functions in eukaryotic cells.

Moonlighting at replication forks - a new life for homologous recombination proteins BRCA1, BRCA2 and RAD51

Coordination between DNA replication and DNA repair ensures maintenance of genome integrity, which is lost in cancer cells. Emerging evidence has linked homologous recombination (HR) proteins RAD51, BRCA1 and BRCA2 to the stability of nascent DNA. This function appears to be distinct from double-strand break (DSB) repair and is in part due to the prevention of MRE11-mediated degradation of nascent DNA at stalled forks. The role of RAD51 in fork protection resembles the activity described for its prokaryotic orthologue RecA, which prevents nuclease-mediated degradation of DNA and promotes replication fork restart in cells challenged by DNA-damaging agents. Here, we examine the mechanistic aspects of HR-mediated fork protection, addressing the crosstalk between HR and replication proteins.

Eukaryotic Rad50 functions as a rod-shaped dimer

The Rad50 hook interface is crucial for assembly and various functions of the Mre11 complex. Previous analyses suggested that Rad50 molecules interact within (intracomplex) or between (intercomplex) dimeric complexes. In this study, we determined the structure of the human Rad50 hook and coiled-coil domains. The data suggest that the predominant structure is the intracomplex, in which the two parallel coiled coils proximal to the hook form a rod shape, and that a novel interface within the coiled-coil domains of Rad50 stabilizes the interaction of Rad50 protomers in the dimeric assembly. In yeast, removal of the coiled-coil interface compromised Tel1 activation without affecting DNA repair, while simultaneous disruption of that interface and the hook phenocopied a null mutation. The results demonstrate that the hook and coiled-coil interfaces coordinately promote intracomplex assembly and define the intracomplex as the functional form of the Mre11 complex.

Interplay with the Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 complex and phosphorylation by GSK3β implicate human B-Myb in DNA-damage signaling

B-Myb, a highly conserved member of the Myb transcription factor family, is expressed ubiquitously in proliferating cells and controls the cell cycle dependent transcription of G2/M-phase genes. Deregulation of B-Myb has been implicated in oncogenesis and loss of genomic stability. We have identified B-Myb as a novel interaction partner of the Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 (MRN) complex, a key player in the repair of DNA double strand breaks. We show that B-Myb directly interacts with the Nbs1 subunit of the MRN complex and is recruited transiently to DNA-damage sites. In response to DNA-damage B-Myb is phosphorylated by protein kinase GSK3β and released from the MRN complex. A B-Myb mutant that cannot be phosphorylated by GSK3β disturbs the regulation of pro-mitotic B-Myb target genes and leads to inappropriate mitotic entry in response to DNA-damage. Overall, our work suggests a novel function of B-Myb in the cellular DNA-damage signalling.

Different DNA End Configurations Dictate Which NHEJ Components Are Most Important for Joining Efficiency

The nonhomologous DNA end-joining (NHEJ) pathway is a key mechanism for repairing dsDNA breaks that occur often in eukaryotic cells. In the simplest model, these breaks are first recognized by Ku, which then interacts with other NHEJ proteins to improve their affinity at DNA ends. These include DNA-PKcs and Artemis for trimming the DNA ends; DNA polymerase μ and λ to add nucleotides; and the DNA ligase IV complex to ligate the ends with the additional factors, XRCC4 (X-ray repair cross-complementing protein 4), XLF (XRCC4-like factor/Cernunos), and PAXX (paralog of XRCC4 and XLF). In vivo studies have demonstrated the degrees of importance of these NHEJ proteins in the mechanism of repair of dsDNA breaks, but interpretations can be confounded by other cellular processes. In vitro studies with NHEJ proteins have been performed to evaluate the nucleolytic resection, polymerization, and ligation steps, but a complete system has been elusive. Here we have developed a NHEJ reconstitution system that includes the nuclease, polymerase, and ligase components to evaluate relative NHEJ efficiency and analyze ligated junctional sequences for various types of DNA ends, including blunt, 5' overhangs, and 3' overhangs. We find that different dsDNA end structures have differential dependence on these enzymatic components. The dependence of some end joining on only Ku and XRCC4·DNA ligase IV allows us to formulate a physical model that incorporates nuclease and polymerase components as needed.

Long-Range Signaling in MutS and MSH Homologs via Switching of Dynamic Communication Pathways

Allostery is conformation regulation by propagating a signal from one site to another distal site. This study focuses on the long-range communication in DNA mismatch repair proteins MutS and its homologs where intramolecular signaling has to travel over 70 Å to couple lesion detection to ATPase activity and eventual downstream repair. Using dynamic network analysis based on extensive molecular dynamics simulations, multiple preserved communication pathways were identified that would allow such long-range signaling. The pathways appear to depend on the nucleotides bound to the ATPase domain as well as the type of DNA substrate consistent with previously proposed functional cycles of mismatch recognition and repair initiation by MutS and homologs. A mechanism is proposed where pathways are switched without major conformational rearrangements allowing for efficient long-range signaling and allostery.

A method for predicting individual residue contributions to enzyme specificity and binding-site energies, and its application to MTH1

A new method for predicting the energy contributions to substrate binding and to specificity has been developed. Conventional global optimization methods do not permit the subtle effects responsible for these properties to be modeled with sufficient precision to allow confidence to be placed in the results, but by making simple alterations to the model, the precisions of the various energies involved can be improved from about ±2 kcal mol⁻¹ to ±0.1 kcal mol⁻¹. This technique was applied to the oxidized nucleotide pyrophosphohydrolase enzyme MTH1. MTH1 is unusual in that the binding and reaction sites are well separated—an advantage from a computational chemistry perspective, as it allows the energetics involved in docking to be modeled without the need to consider any issues relating to reaction mechanisms. In this study, two types of energy terms were investigated: the noncovalent interactions between the binding site and the substrate, and those responsible for discriminating between the oxidized nucleotide 8-oxo-dGTP and the normal dGTP. Both of these were investigated using the semiempirical method PM7 in the program MOPAC. The contributions of the individual residues to both the binding energy and the specificity of MTH1 were calculated by simulating the effect of mutations. Where comparisons were possible, all calculated results were in agreement with experimental observations. This technique provides fresh insight into the binding mechanism that enzymes use for discriminating between possible substrates.

A comparison of X-ray and calculated structures of the enzyme MTH1

Modern computational chemistry methods provide a powerful tool for use in refining the geometry of proteins determined by X-ray crystallography. Specifically, computational methods can be used to correctly place hydrogen atoms unresolved by this experimental method and improve bond geometry accuracy. Using the semiempirical method PM7, the structure of the nucleotide-sanitizing enzyme MTH1, complete with hydrolyzed substrate 8-oxo-dGMP, was optimized and the resulting geometry compared with the original X-ray structure of MTH1. After determining hydrogen atom placement and the identification of ionized sites, the charge distribution in the binding site was explored. Where comparison was possible, all the theoretical predictions were in good agreement with experimental observations. However, when these were combined with additional predictions for which experimental observations were not available, the result was a new and alternative description of the substrate-binding site interaction. An estimate was made of the strengths and weaknesses of the PM7 method for modeling proteins on varying scales, ranging from overall structure to individual interatomic distances. An attempt to correct a known fault in PM7, the under-estimation of steric repulsion, is also described. This work sheds light on the specificity of the enzyme MTH1 toward the substrate 8-oxo-dGTP; information that would facilitate drug development involving MTH1. Graphical Abstract Overlay of the backbone traces of the two MTH1 protein chains (green and orange respectively) in PDB 3ZR0 and the equivalent PM7 structures (magenta and cyan respectively) each optimized separately.

Structure of the catalytic domain of Mre11 from Chaetomium thermophilum

Together with the Rad50 ATPase, the Mre11 nuclease forms an evolutionarily conserved protein complex that plays a central role in the repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). Mre11-Rad50 detects and processes DNA ends, and has functions in the tethering as well as the signalling of DSBs. The Mre11 dimer can bind one or two DNA ends or hairpins, and processes DNA endonucleolytically as well as exonucleolytically in the 3'-to-5' direction. Here, the crystal structure of the Mre11 catalytic domain dimer from Chaetomium thermophilum (CtMre11(CD)) is reported. CtMre11(CD) crystals diffracted to 2.8 Å resolution and revealed previously undefined features within the dimer interface, in particular fully ordered eukaryote-specific insertion loops that considerably expand the dimer interface. Furthermore, comparison with other eukaryotic Mre11 structures reveals differences in the conformations of the dimer and the capping domain. In summary, the results reported here provide new insights into the architecture of the eukaryotic Mre11 dimer.

Human RAD50 makes a functional DNA-binding complex

The MRE11-RAD50-NBS1 (MRN) complex has several distinct functions in DNA repair including important roles in both non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination (HR). The biochemical activities of MR(N) have been well characterized implying specific functional roles for the components. The arrangement of proteins in the complex implies interdependence of their biochemical activities making it difficult to separate specific functions. We obtained purified human RAD50 and observed that it binds ATP, undergoes ATP-dependent conformational changes as well as having ATPase activity. Scanning force microscopy analysis clearly showed that RAD50 binds DNA although not as oligomers. RAD50 alone was not functional in tethering DNA molecules. ATP increased formation of RAD50 multimers which were however globular lacking extended coiled coils, in contrast to the MR complex where ATP induced oligomers have obvious coiled coils protruding from a central domain. These results suggest that MRE11 is important in maintaining the structural arrangement of RAD50 in the protein complex and perhaps has a role in reinforcing proper alignment of the coiled coils in the ATP-bound state.

Envisioning the dynamics and flexibility of Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 complex to decipher its roles in DNA replication and repair

The Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 (MRN) complex is a dynamic macromolecular machine that acts in the first steps of DNA double strand break repair, and each of its components has intrinsic dynamics and flexibility properties that are directly linked with their functions. As a result, deciphering the functional structural biology of the MRN complex is driving novel and integrated technologies to define the dynamic structural biology of protein machinery interacting with DNA. Rad50 promotes dramatic long-range allostery through its coiled-coil and zinc-hook domains. Its ATPase activity drives dynamic transitions between monomeric and dimeric forms that can be modulated with mutants modifying the ATPase rate to control end joining versus resection activities. The biological functions of Mre11's dual endo- and exonuclease activities in repair pathway choice were enigmatic until recently, when they were unveiled by the development of specific nuclease inhibitors. Mre11 dimer flexibility, which may be regulated in cells to control MRN function, suggests new inhibitor design strategies for cancer intervention. Nbs1 has FHA and BRCT domains to bind multiple interaction partners that further regulate MRN. One of them, CtIP, modulates the Mre11 excision activity for homologous recombination repair. Overall, these combined properties suggest novel therapeutic strategies. Furthermore, they collectively help to explain how MRN regulates DNA repair pathway choice with implications for improving the design and analysis of cancer clinical trials that employ DNA damaging agents or target the DNA damage response.

Identification of two missense mutations of ERCC6 in three Chinese sisters with Cockayne syndrome by whole exome sequencing

Cockayne syndrome (CS) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder, the primary manifestations of which are poor growth and neurologic abnormality. Mutations of the ERCC6 and ERCC8 genes are the predominant cause of Cockayne syndrome, and the ERCC6 gene mutation is present in approximately 65% of cases. The present report describes a case of Cockayne syndrome in a Chinese family, with the patients carrying two missense mutations (c.1595A>G, p.Asp532Gly and c.1607T>G, p.Leu536Trp) in the ERCC6 gene in an apparently compound heterozygote status, especially, p.Asp532Gly has never been reported. The compound heterozygote mutation was found in three patients in the family using whole exome sequencing. The patients' father and mother carried a heterozygous allele at different locations of the ERCC6 gene, which was confirmed by Sanger DNA sequencing. The two mutations are both located in the highly conserved motif I of ATP-binding helicase and are considered "Damaging," "Probably Damaging," "Disease Causing," and "Conserved", indicating the role of DNA damage in the pathogenetic process of the disease. The results not only enrich the ERCC6 mutations database, but also indicate that whole exome sequencing will be a powerful tool for discovering the disease causing mutations in clinical diagnosis.

The Mre11/Rad50/Nbs1 complex: recent insights into catalytic activities and ATP-driven conformational changes

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Distribution of protein poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation systems across all domains of life

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is a post-translational modification of proteins involved in regulation of many cellular pathways. Poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) consists of chains of repeating ADP-ribose nucleotide units and is synthesized by the family of enzymes called poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs). This modification can be removed by the hydrolytic action of poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG) and ADP-ribosylhydrolase 3 (ARH3). Hydrolytic activity of macrodomain proteins (MacroD1, MacroD2 and TARG1) is responsible for the removal of terminal ADP-ribose unit and for complete reversion of protein ADP-ribosylation. Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is widely utilized in eukaryotes and PARPs are present in representatives from all six major eukaryotic supergroups, with only a small number of eukaryotic species that do not possess PARP genes. The last common ancestor of all eukaryotes possessed at least five types of PARP proteins that include both mono and poly(ADP-ribosyl) transferases. Distribution of PARGs strictly follows the distribution of PARP proteins in eukaryotic species. At least one of the macrodomain proteins that hydrolyse terminal ADP-ribose is also always present. Therefore, we can presume that the last common ancestor of all eukaryotes possessed a fully functional and reversible PAR metabolism and that PAR signalling provided the conditions essential for survival of the ancestral eukaryote in its ancient environment. PARP proteins are far less prevalent in bacteria and were probably gained through horizontal gene transfer. Only eleven bacterial species possess all proteins essential for a functional PAR metabolism, although it is not known whether PAR metabolism is truly functional in bacteria. Several dsDNA viruses also possess PARP homologues, while no PARP proteins have been identified in any archaeal genome. Our analysis of the distribution of enzymes involved in PAR metabolism provides insight into the evolution of these important signalling systems, as well as providing the basis for selection of the appropriate genetic model organisms to study the physiology of the specific human PARP proteins.

Synthetic lethality in ATM-deficient RAD50-mutant tumors underlies outlier response to cancer therapy

Metastatic solid tumors are almost invariably fatal. Patients with disseminated small-cell cancers have a particularly unfavorable prognosis, with most succumbing to their disease within two years. Here, we report on the genetic and functional analysis of an outlier curative response of a patient with metastatic small-cell cancer to combined checkpoint kinase 1 (CHK1) inhibition and DNA-damaging chemotherapy. Whole-genome sequencing revealed a clonal hemizygous mutation in the Mre11 complex gene RAD50 that attenuated ATM signaling which in the context of CHK1 inhibition contributed, via synthetic lethality, to extreme sensitivity to irinotecan. As Mre11 mutations occur in a diversity of human tumors, the results suggest a tumor-specific combination therapy strategy in which checkpoint inhibition in combination with DNA-damaging chemotherapy is synthetically lethal in tumor cells but not normal cells with somatic mutations that impair Mre11 complex function.

SIGNIFICANCE

Strategies to effect deep and lasting responses to cancer therapy in patients with metastatic disease have remained difficult to attain, especially in early-phase clinical trials. Here, we present an in-depth genomic and functional genetic analysis identifying RAD50 hypomorphism as a contributing factor to a curative response to systemic combination therapy in a patient with recurrent, metastatic small-cell cancer.

High resolution mapping of modified DNA nucleobases using excision repair enzymes

The incorporation and creation of modified nucleobases in DNA have profound effects on genome function. We describe methods for mapping positions and local content of modified DNA nucleobases in genomic DNA. We combined in vitro nucleobase excision with massively parallel DNA sequencing (Excision-seq) to determine the locations of modified nucleobases in genomic DNA. We applied the Excision-seq method to map uracil in E. coli and budding yeast and discovered significant variation in uracil content, wherein uracil is excluded from the earliest and latest replicating regions of the genome, possibly driven by changes in nucleotide pool composition. We also used Excision-seq to identify sites of pyrimidine dimer formation induced by UV light exposure, where the method could distinguish between sites of cyclobutane and 6-4 photoproduct formation. These UV mapping data enabled analysis of local sequence bias around pyrimidine dimers and suggested a preference for an adenosine downstream from 6-4 photoproducts. The Excision-seq method is broadly applicable for high precision, genome-wide mapping of modified nucleobases with cognate repair enzymes.

Is thymidine glycol containing DNA a substrate of E. coli DNA mismatch repair system?

The DNA mismatch repair (MMR) system plays a crucial role in the prevention of replication errors and in the correction of some oxidative damages of DNA bases. In the present work the most abundant oxidized pyrimidine lesion, 5,6-dihydro-5,6-dihydroxythymidine (thymidine glycol, Tg) was tested for being recognized and processed by the E. coli MMR system, namely complex of MutS, MutL and MutH proteins. In a partially reconstituted MMR system with MutS-MutL-MutH proteins, G/Tg and A/Tg containing plasmids failed to provoke the incision of DNA. Tg residue in the 30-mer DNA duplex destabilized double helix due to stacking disruption with neighboring bases. However, such local structural changes are not important for E. coli MMR system to recognize this lesion. A lack of repair of Tg containing DNA could be due to a failure of MutS (a first acting protein of MMR system) to interact with modified DNA in a proper way. It was shown that Tg in DNA does not affect on ATPase activity of MutS. On the other hand, MutS binding affinities to DNA containing Tg in G/Tg and A/Tg pairs are lower than to DNA with a G/T mismatch and similar to canonical DNA. Peculiarities of MutS interaction with DNA was monitored by Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) and fluorescence anisotropy. Binding of MutS to Tg containing DNAs did not result in the formation of characteristic DNA kink. Nevertheless, MutS homodimer orientation on Tg-DNA is similar to that in the case of G/T-DNA. In contrast to G/T-DNA, neither G/Tg- nor A/Tg-DNA was able to stimulate ADP release from MutS better than canonical DNA. Thus, Tg residue in DNA is unlikely to be recognized or processed by the E. coli MMR system. Probably, the MutS transformation to active “sliding clamp” conformation on Tg-DNA is problematic.

MutLα heterodimers modify the molecular phenotype of Friedreich ataxia

BACKGROUND

Friedreich ataxia (FRDA), the most common autosomal recessive ataxia disorder, is caused by a dynamic GAA repeat expansion mutation within intron 1 of FXN gene, resulting in down-regulation of frataxin expression. Studies of cell and mouse models have revealed a role for the mismatch repair (MMR) MutS-heterodimer complexes and the PMS2 component of the MutLα complex in the dynamics of intergenerational and somatic GAA repeat expansions: MSH2, MSH3 and MSH6 promote GAA repeat expansions, while PMS2 inhibits GAA repeat expansions.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

To determine the potential role of the other component of the MutLα complex, MLH1, in GAA repeat instability in FRDA, we have analyzed intergenerational and somatic GAA repeat expansions from FXN transgenic mice that have been crossed with Mlh1 deficient mice. We find that loss of Mlh1 activity reduces both intergenerational and somatic GAA repeat expansions. However, we also find that loss of either Mlh1 or Pms2 reduces FXN transcription, suggesting different mechanisms of action for Mlh1 and Pms2 on GAA repeat expansion dynamics and regulation of FXN transcription.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Both MutLα components, PMS2 and MLH1, have now been shown to modify the molecular phenotype of FRDA. We propose that upregulation of MLH1 or PMS2 could be potential FRDA therapeutic approaches to increase FXN transcription.

The spatial organization of non-homologous end joining: from bridging to end joining

Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) repairs DNA double-strand breaks generated by DNA damage and also those occurring in V(D)J recombination in immunoglobulin and T cell receptor production in the immune system. In NHEJ DNA-PKcs assembles with Ku heterodimer on the DNA ends at double-strand breaks, in order to bring the broken ends together and to assemble other proteins, including DNA ligase IV (LigIV), required for DNA repair. Here we focus on structural aspects of the interactions of LigIV with XRCC4, XLF, Artemis and DNA involved in the bridging and end-joining steps of NHEJ. We begin with a discussion of the role of XLF, which interacts with Ku and forms a hetero-filament with XRCC4; this likely forms a scaffold bridging the DNA ends. We then review the well-defined interaction of XRCC4 with LigIV, and discuss the possibility of this complex interrupting the filament formation, so positioning the ligase at the correct positions close to the broken ends. We also describe the interactions of LigIV with Artemis, the nuclease that prepares the ends for ligation and also interacts with DNA-PK. Lastly we review the likely affects of Mendelian mutations on these multiprotein assemblies and their impacts on the form of inherited disease.

Structural insights into NHEJ: building up an integrated picture of the dynamic DSB repair super complex, one component and interaction at a time

Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) is the major pathway for repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in human cells. NHEJ is also needed for V(D)J recombination and the development of T and B cells in vertebrate immune systems, and acts in both the generation and prevention of non-homologous chromosomal translocations, a hallmark of genomic instability and many human cancers. X-ray crystal structures, cryo-electron microscopy envelopes, and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) solution conformations and assemblies are defining most of the core protein components for NHEJ: Ku70/Ku80 heterodimer; the DNA dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit (DNA-PKcs); the structure-specific endonuclease Artemis along with polynucleotide kinase/phosphatase (PNKP), aprataxin and PNKP related protein (APLF); the scaffolding proteins XRCC4 and XLF (XRCC4-like factor); DNA polymerases, and DNA ligase IV (Lig IV). The dynamic assembly of multi-protein NHEJ complexes at DSBs is regulated in part by protein phosphorylation. The basic steps of NHEJ have been biochemically defined to require: (1) DSB detection by the Ku heterodimer with subsequent DNA-PKcs tethering to form the DNA-PKcs-Ku-DNA complex (termed DNA-PK), (2) lesion processing, and (3) DNA end ligation by Lig IV, which functions in complex with XRCC4 and XLF. The current integration of structures by combined methods is resolving puzzles regarding the mechanisms, coordination and regulation of these three basic steps. Overall, structural results suggest the NHEJ system forms a flexing scaffold with the DNA-PKcs HEAT repeats acting as compressible macromolecular springs suitable to store and release conformational energy to apply forces to regulate NHEJ complexes and the DNA substrate for DNA end protection, processing, and ligation.

Stereospecific targeting of MTH1 by (S)-crizotinib as an anticancer strategy

Activated RAS GTPase signalling is a critical driver of oncogenic transformation and malignant disease. Cellular models of RAS-dependent cancers have been used to identify experimental small molecules, such as SCH51344, but their molecular mechanism of action remains generally unknown. Here, using a chemical proteomic approach, we identify the target of SCH51344 as the human mutT homologue MTH1 (also known as NUDT1), a nucleotide pool sanitizing enzyme. Loss-of-function of MTH1 impaired growth of KRAS tumour cells, whereas MTH1 overexpression mitigated sensitivity towards SCH51344. Searching for more drug-like inhibitors, we identified the kinase inhibitor crizotinib as a nanomolar suppressor of MTH1 activity. Surprisingly, the clinically used (R)-enantiomer of the drug was inactive, whereas the (S)-enantiomer selectively inhibited MTH1 catalytic activity. Enzymatic assays, chemical proteomic profiling, kinome-wide activity surveys and MTH1 co-crystal structures of both enantiomers provide a rationale for this remarkable stereospecificity. Disruption of nucleotide pool homeostasis via MTH1 inhibition by (S)-crizotinib induced an increase in DNA single-strand breaks, activated DNA repair in human colon carcinoma cells, and effectively suppressed tumour growth in animal models. Our results propose (S)-crizotinib as an attractive chemical entity for further pre-clinical evaluation, and small-molecule inhibitors of MTH1 in general as a promising novel class of anticancer agents.

MTH1 inhibition eradicates cancer by preventing sanitation of the dNTP pool

Cancers have dysfunctional redox regulation resulting in reactive oxygen species production, damaging both DNA and free dNTPs. The MTH1 protein sanitizes oxidized dNTP pools to prevent incorporation of damaged bases during DNA replication. Although MTH1 is non-essential in normal cells, we show that cancer cells require MTH1 activity to avoid incorporation of oxidized dNTPs, resulting in DNA damage and cell death. We validate MTH1 as an anticancer target in vivo and describe small molecules TH287 and TH588 as first-in-class nudix hydrolase family inhibitors that potently and selectively engage and inhibit the MTH1 protein in cells. Protein co-crystal structures demonstrate that the inhibitors bind in the active site of MTH1. The inhibitors cause incorporation of oxidized dNTPs in cancer cells, leading to DNA damage, cytotoxicity and therapeutic responses in patient-derived mouse xenografts. This study exemplifies the non-oncogene addiction concept for anticancer treatment and validates MTH1 as being cancer phenotypic lethal.

Quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics study on the oxygen binding and substrate hydroxylation step in AlkB repair enzymes

AlkB repair enzymes are important nonheme iron enzymes that catalyse the demethylation of alkylated DNA bases in humans, which is a vital reaction in the body that heals externally damaged DNA bases. Its mechanism is currently controversial and in order to resolve the catalytic mechanism of these enzymes, a quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) study was performed on the demethylation of the N(1) -methyladenine fragment by AlkB repair enzymes. Firstly, the initial modelling identified the oxygen binding site of the enzyme. Secondly, the oxygen activation mechanism was investigated and a novel pathway was found, whereby the catalytically active iron(IV)-oxo intermediate in the catalytic cycle undergoes an initial isomerisation assisted by an Arg residue in the substrate binding pocket, which then brings the oxo group in close contact with the methyl group of the alkylated DNA base. This enables a subsequent rate-determining hydrogen-atom abstraction on competitive σ- and π-pathways on a quintet spin-state surface. These findings give evidence of different locations of the oxygen and substrate binding channels in the enzyme and the origin of the separation of the oxygen-bound intermediates in the catalytic cycle from substrate. Our studies are compared with small model complexes and the effect of protein and environment on the kinetics and mechanism is explained.

The PCNA interaction protein box sequence in Rad54 is an integral part of its ATPase domain and is required for efficient DNA repair and recombination

Rad54 is an ATP-driven translocase involved in the genome maintenance pathway of homologous recombination (HR). Although its activity has been implicated in several steps of HR, its exact role(s) at each step are still not fully understood. We have identified a new interaction between Rad54 and the replicative DNA clamp, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). This interaction was only mildly weakened by the mutation of two key hydrophobic residues in the highly-conserved PCNA interaction motif (PIP-box) of Rad54 (Rad54-AA). Intriguingly, the rad54-AA mutant cells displayed sensitivity to DNA damage and showed HR defects similar to the null mutant, despite retaining its ability to interact with HR proteins and to be recruited to HR foci in vivo. We therefore surmised that the PCNA interaction might be impaired in vivo and was unable to promote repair synthesis during HR. Indeed, the Rad54-AA mutant was defective in primer extension at the MAT locus as well as in vitro, but additional biochemical analysis revealed that this mutant also had diminished ATPase activity and an inability to promote D-loop formation. Further mutational analysis of the putative PIP-box uncovered that other phenotypically relevant mutants in this domain also resulted in a loss of ATPase activity. Therefore, we have found that although Rad54 interacts with PCNA, the PIP-box motif likely plays only a minor role in stabilizing the PCNA interaction, and rather, this conserved domain is probably an extension of the ATPase domain III.

Structure determination and biochemical characterization of a putative HNH endonuclease from Geobacter metallireducens GS-15

The crystal structure of a putative HNH endonuclease, Gmet_0936 protein from Geobacter metallireducens GS-15, has been determined at 2.6 Å resolution using single-wavelength anomalous dispersion method. The structure contains a two-stranded anti-parallel β-sheet that are surrounded by two helices on each face, and reveals a Zn ion bound in each monomer, coordinated by residues Cys38, Cys41, Cys73, and Cys76, which likely plays an important structural role in stabilizing the overall conformation. Structural homologs of Gmet_0936 include Hpy99I endonuclease, phage T4 endonuclease VII, and other HNH endonucleases, with these enzymes sharing 15-20% amino acid sequence identity. An overlay of Gmet_0936 and Hpy99I structures shows that most of the secondary structure elements, catalytic residues as well as the zinc binding site (zinc ribbon) are conserved. However, Gmet_0936 lacks the N-terminal domain of Hpy99I, which mediates DNA binding as well as dimerization. Purified Gmet_0936 forms dimers in solution and a dimer of the protein is observed in the crystal, but with a different mode of dimerization as compared to Hpy99I. Gmet_0936 and its N77H variant show a weak DNA binding activity in a DNA mobility shift assay and a weak Mn²⁺-dependent nicking activity on supercoiled plasmids in low pH buffers. The preferred substrate appears to be acid and heat-treated DNA with AP sites, suggesting Gmet_0936 may be a DNA repair enzyme.

The FHA and BRCT domains recognize ADP-ribosylation during DNA damage response

Poly-ADP-ribosylation is a unique post-translational modification participating in many biological processes, such as DNA damage response. Here, we demonstrate that a set of Forkhead-associated (FHA) and BRCA1 C-terminal (BRCT) domains recognizes poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) both in vitro and in vivo. Among these FHA and BRCT domains, the FHA domains of APTX and PNKP interact with iso-ADP-ribose, the linkage of PAR, whereas the BRCT domains of Ligase4, XRCC1, and NBS1 recognize ADP-ribose, the basic unit of PAR. The interactions between PAR and the FHA or BRCT domains mediate the relocation of these domain-containing proteins to DNA damage sites and facilitate the DNA damage response. Moreover, the interaction between PAR and the NBS1 BRCT domain is important for the early activation of ATM during DNA damage response and ATM-dependent cell cycle checkpoint activation. Taken together, our results demonstrate two novel PAR-binding modules that play important roles in DNA damage response.

Structure, function and regulation of CSB: a multi-talented gymnast

The Cockayne syndrome complementation group B protein, CSB, plays pivotal roles in transcription regulation and DNA repair. CSB belongs to the SNF2/SWI2 ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling protein family, and studies from many laboratories have revealed that CSB has multiple activities and modes of regulation. To understand the underlying mechanisms of Cockayne syndrome, it is necessary to understand how the biochemical activities of CSB are used to carry out its biological functions. In this review, we summarize our current knowledge of the structure, function and regulation of CSB, and discuss how these properties can impact the biological functions of this chromatin remodeler.

Snm1B interacts with PSF2

The protein Snm1B plays a key role in interstrand crosslink (ICL) repair. In a yeast two-hybrid screen we identified the protein PSF2 to bind Snm1B. PSF2 is a member of the GINS complex involved in replication initiation and elongation, and is known to play a role in ICL repair. Snm1B was shown to bind PSF2 in human cells through two regions, strongly to a 144 amino acid N-terminal region and weakly to a second smaller 37 amino acid C-terminal region. Ectopic expression of PSF2 increased the amount of Mus81, a protein component of the endonucleolytic complex involved in ICL repair, co-immunoprecipitating with Snm1B. Moreover, deleting the N-terminal, but not C-terminal region of Snm1B reduced the amount of co-immunoprecipitated Mus81. Conversely, the telomere-binding protein TRF2 competed with PSF2 for binding to the C-terminus of Snm1B, and deletion of this region, but not the N-terminal region, reduced Snm1B chromatin association. We speculate that the N-terminal region of Snm1B forms a complex containing PSF2 and Mus81, while the C-terminal region is important for PSF2-mediated chromatin association.

[Bioinformatic analysis of potential post-translational modification sites of the human O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) protein]

Using in silico analysis a number of potential sites for post-translational modifications has been revealed within the human O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) protein. In particular these were the acetylation of Gly3 residue in the N-terminus of protein and internal residues Lys132 and Lys135; Arg166 residue methylation; Lys63 SUMOylation and ubiquitination of Lys31, Lys39, Lys49, Lys63, Lys67, Lys135, Lys156, Lys196, Lys209. Also it has been predicted 16 novel potential phosphorylation sites of serine residues (positions 13, 124, 144, 182, 183, 190, 215, 216 and 230), tyrosine residues (positions 100 and 189) and threonine residues (positions 23, 69, 94, 126 and 229), as well as five binding sites for kinases and other proteins (Serl3 with 14-3-3, Val21 and Ile172 with D-domain, Pro78 and Pro111 with SH3-domain, Pro111 with MAPK3). Some kinases predicted by the authors are known as partners of the MGMT protein, that confirms the probability of modification of the given sites. Potential sites require further experimental confirmation of modifications and investigation of their influence on stability and DNA-repair activity of this protein.

CDK targeting of NBS1 promotes DNA-end resection, replication restart and homologous recombination

The conserved MRE11–RAD50–NBS1 (MRN) complex is an important sensor of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) and facilitates DNA repair by homologous recombination (HR) and end joining. Here, we identify NBS1 as a target of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) phosphorylation. We show that NBS1 serine 432 phosphorylation occurs in the S, G2 and M phases of the cell cycle and requires CDK activity. This modification stimulates MRN-dependent conversion of DSBs into structures that are substrates for repair by HR. Impairment of NBS1 phosphorylation not only negatively affects DSB repair by HR, but also prevents resumption of DNA replication after replication-fork stalling. Thus, CDK-mediated NBS1 phosphorylation defines a molecular switch that controls the choice of repair mode for DSBs.

Mutations in UVSSA cause UV-sensitive syndrome and impair RNA polymerase IIo processing in transcription-coupled nucleotide-excision repair

UV-sensitive syndrome (UV(S)S) is a genodermatosis characterized by cutaneous photosensitivity without skin carcinoma. Despite mild clinical features, cells from individuals with UV(S)S, like Cockayne syndrome cells, are very UV sensitive and are deficient in transcription-coupled nucleotide-excision repair (TC-NER), which removes DNA damage in actively transcribed genes. Three of the seven known UV(S)S cases carry mutations in the Cockayne syndrome genes ERCC8 or ERCC6 (also known as CSA and CSB, respectively). The remaining four individuals with UVSS , one of whom is described for the first time here, formed a separate UV(S)S-A complementation group; however, the responsible gene was unknown. Using exome sequencing, we determine that mutations in the UVSSA gene (formerly known as KIAA1530) cause UV(S)S-A. The UVSSA protein interacts with TC-NER machinery and stabilizes the ERCC6 complex; it also facilitates ubiquitination of RNA polymerase IIo stalled at DNA damage sites. Our findings provide mechanistic insights into the processing of stalled RNA polymerase and explain the different clinical features across these TC-NER–deficient disorders.