Unveiling the phenology and associated floral regulatory pathways of Humulus lupulus L. in subtropical conditions

MAIN CONCLUSION

The hop phenological cycle was described in subtropical condition of Brazil showing that flowering can happen at any time of year and this was related to developmental molecular pathways. Hops are traditionally produced in temperate regions, as it was believed that vernalization was necessary for flowering. Nevertheless, recent studies have revealed the potential for hops to flower in tropical and subtropical climates. In this work, we observed that hops in the subtropical climate of Minas Gerais, Brazil grow and flower multiple times throughout the year, independently of the season, contrasting with what happens in temperate regions. This could be due to the photoperiod consistently being inductive, with daylight hours below the described threshold (16.5 h critical). We observed that when the plants reached 7-9 nodes, the leaves began to transition from heart-shaped to trilobed-shaped, which could be indicative of the juvenile to adult transition. This could be related to the fact that the 5th node (in plants with 10 nodes) had the highest expression of miR156, while two miR172s increased in the 20th node (in plants with 25 nodes). Hop flowers appeared later, in the 25th or 28th nodes, and the expression of HlFT3 and HlFT5 was upregulated in plants between 15 and 20 nodes, while the expression of HlTFL3 was upregulated in plants with 20 nodes. These results indicate the role of axillary meristem age in regulating this process and suggest that the florigenic signal should be maintained until the hop plants bloom. In addition, it is possible that the expression of TFL is not sufficient to inhibit flowering in these conditions and promote branching. These findings suggest that the reproductive transition in hop under inductive photoperiodic conditions could occur in plants between 15 and 20 nodes. Our study sheds light on the intricate molecular mechanisms underlying hop floral development, paving the way for potential advancements in hop production on a global scale.

Label-free quantitative proteomics analysis of Humulus scandens (Lour.) Merr. leaves treated by an odor compound of Periploca sepium Bunge

The odor compound from Periploca sepium Bunge, 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy-benzaldehyde (HMB), is an allelochemical agent and is one of the least investigated isomers of vanillin. In this study, we used label-free quantitative proteomics analysis technology to investigate the effect of HMB on the protein expression of Humulus scandens (Lour.) Merr. leaves in July 2019 on Guiyang. A total of 269 proteins of 624 identified proteins were differentially expressed, among which 21.18% of the proteins were up-regulated and 32.71% down-regulated. These proteins were classified into 11 cell components and more than 20% of differentially expressed proteins were located in cell membrane and chloroplast. Functional classification analysis showed that 12 molecular functions were altered upon HMB treatment, and the ratio of catalytic activity was the highest (19.53%). At least 12 biological functions were affected, which involved small molecule metabolic processes, organic substance metabolic processes, gene expression, and photosynthesis. Our data provide resources and insights into the biochemical mechanism by which HMB kills weeds.

High genetic and chemical diversity of wild hop populations from Central Italy with signals of a genetic structure influenced by both sexual and asexual reproduction

In order to investigate the intraspecific diversity of wild Humulus lupulus (hop) in Central Italy, 12 populations were evaluated for their genetic polymorphism by means of 13 SSR loci together with six commercial cultivars as a reference. High levels of polymorphism were found across the populations, being 140 the number of multilocus genotypes over 159 samples analyzed. Moreover, the observed heterozygosity was higher than expected in most of the populations. High levels of gene flow were thus envisaged to occur within and among wild populations, and our sampling strategy allowed us to gain insights on the propagation modes of this species, i.e. clonal versus sexual propagation. Nevertheless, a genetic structure of populations with at least five genetically different clusters was disclosed. Private alleles were observed in both wild and cultivated hops. Chemical analysis of bittering and aromatic quality of female flowers from a subset of 8 wild populations revealed a high variability among plants, especially for essential oil components. Overall, the high variability of wild accessions here examined represent a valid source to be exploited in future breeding programs for new or improved hop cultivars development.

New Male Specific Markers for Hop and Application in Breeding Program

Male specific DNA sequences were selected from a Diversity Arrays Technology (DArT) mapping study to evaluate their suitability for determination of the sex phenotype among young seedlings in a hop (Humulus lupulus L.) breeding program. Ten male specific DArT markers showed complete linkage with male sex phenotype in three crossing families. Following optimization, four were successfully converted into PCR markers and a multiplex PCR approach for their use was developed. Among 197 plants (97 from the world collection; 100 from three segregating families), 94-100% positive correlation with sex phenotypic data was achieved for the single PCR amplification, whereas the multiplex approach showed 100% correlation. To develop a fast and low-cost method, crude sample multiplex PCR was evaluated in 253 progenies from 14 segregating populations without losing accuracy. The study describes, for the first time, the routine application of molecular markers linked to male sex in an intensive Slovenian hop breeding program. The methods described could be employed for screening of sex at the seedling stage in other hop programs worldwide, thereby saving resources for desirable female plants.

Fast Sampling, Analyses and Chemometrics for Plant Breeding: Bitter Acids, Xanthohumol and Terpenes in Lupulin Glands of Hops (Humulus lupulus)

INTRODUCTION

The valuable secondary metabolites in hops (bitter acids, xanthohumol, volatile monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes) are sequestered in lupulin glands (extracellular trichomes) which can be collected and analysed with little or no sample preparation.

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether high throughput screening of lupulin glands composition, by fast analyses and chemometrics, could be used for breeder selection of hops with key flavour attributes.

METHODS

Lupulin glands from 139 plants (39 cultivars/advanced selections) were analysed by Raman and ¹ H NMR spectroscopy, and head-space solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) GC-FID. The digital X,Y-data were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) and the results compared with conventional analyses of extracts of whole hops from the same plants. Quantitative ¹ H NMR analyses were also done for the bitter acids.

RESULTS

Raman spectroscopy rapidly identified hops cultivars with high xanthohumol concentrations and high α:β bitter acid ratios. ¹ H NMR spectroscopy was slower, requiring a solvent extraction, but distinguished cultivars by cohumulone content as well as α:β acid ratios. HS-SPME-GC rapidly distinguished aroma hops with high myrcene and farnesene contents, and pinpointed a novel selection with unusual sesquiterpenes. The quantitative NMR analyses showed correlations between bitter acid concentrations related to biosynthetic pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of lupulin glands gave reliable results for the main quality indicators used by hops breeders, potentially avoiding harvesting, drying and solvent extracting whole hops. PCA of digital X,Y-data rapidly discriminated different hops chemotypes, and highlighted plants with potential for new flavourcultivars. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Partitioning of vessel resistivity in three liana species

Vessels with simple perforation plates, found in the majority of angiosperms, are considered the evolutionarily most advanced conduits, least impeding the xylem sap flow. Nevertheless, when measured, their hydraulic resistivity (R, i.e., inverse value of hydraulic conductivity) is significantly higher than resistivity predicted using Hagen-Poiseuille equation (R_HP). In our study we aimed (i) to quantify two basic components of the total vessel resistivity - vessel lumen resistivity and end wall resistivity, and (ii) to analyze how the variable inner diameter of the vessel along its longitudinal axis affects resistivity. We measured flow rates through progressively shortened stems of hop (Humulus lupulus L.), grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.), and clematis (Clematis vitalba L.) and used elastomer injection for identification of open vessels and for measurement of changing vessel inner diameters along its axis. The relative contribution of end wall resistivity to total vessel resistivity was 0.46 for hop, 0.55 for grapevine, and 0.30 for clematis. Vessel lumen resistivity calculated from our measurements was substantially higher than theoretical resistivity - about 43% for hop, 58% for grapevine, and 52% for clematis. We identified variation in the vessel inner diameter as an important source of vessel resistivity. The coefficient of variation of vessel inner diameter was a good predictor for the increase of the ratio of integral R_HP to R_HP calculated from the mean value of inner vessel diameter. We discuss the fact that we dealt with the longest vessels in a given stem sample, which may lead to the overestimation of vessel lumen resistivity, which consequently precludes decision whether the variable vessel inner diameter explains fully the difference between vessel lumen resistivity and R_HP we observed.

Hop (Humulus lupulus L.) response mechanisms in drought stress: Proteomic analysis with physiology

Drought is one of the major environmental devastating stressors that impair the growth and productivity of crop plants. Despite the relevance of drought stress, changes in physiology and resistance mechanisms are not completely understood for certain crops, including hop (Humulus lupulus L.). In this research the drought response of hop was studied using a conventional physiological approach (gas exchange techniques, fluorescence, relative water content measurements) and proteomic analysis (2D-DIGE). Plants of two cultivars (Aurora and Savinjski golding) were exposed to progressive drought in a pot experiment and analysed at different stress stages (mild, moderate and severe). Measurements of relative water content revealed a hydrostable water balance of hop. Photosynthesis was decreased due to stomatal and non-stomatal limitation to the same extent in both cultivars. Of 28 identified differentially abundant proteins, the majority were down regulated and included in photosynthetic (41%) and sugar metabolism (33%). Fifteen % of identified proteins were classified into the nitrogen metabolism, 4% were related to a ROS related pathway and 7% to other functions.

Expression of Lipoxygenase During Organogenic Nodule Formation from Hop Internodes

Study of lipoxygenase expression (LOX; EC 1.13.11.12) during organogenic nodule formation in hop ( Humulus lupulus var. Nugget) showed that LOXs are developmentally regulated throughout the process, suggesting their involvement in the response of internodes to wounding, nodule formation, and plantlet regeneration from these nodules. LOX activity and lipid peroxides exhibited a huge increase during the first week of culture, which may indicate a role for LOX and LOX products in response to wounding in hop, as reported for other systems. Western blotting analysis showed a de novo synthesis of LOX isoenzymes in response to wounding and the detection of three different isoenzymes. Confocal analysis of LOX immunofluorescence revealed the presence of the enzyme in cortical cells of induced internodes and in prenodular cells, mostly appearing as cytoplasmic spots. Some of them were identified as lipid bodies by cytochemical and double immunofluorescence assays, suggesting the involvement of a lipid body LOX during nodule formation. Immunogold labeling detected LOX in peroxisomes, lipid bodies, and plastids of nodular cells. Quantification of the labeling density provided statistical significance for the localization of LOX (three different isoenzymes) in the three compartments, which suggested a possible involvement of LOX in metabolic functions of these organelles during organogenic nodule formation and plantlet regeneration.

The influence of ecological and conventional plant production systems on soil microbial quality under hops (Humulus lupulus)

The knowledge about microorganisms—activity and diversity under hop production is still limited. We assumed that, different systems of hop production (within the same soil and climatic conditions) significantly influence on the composition of soil microbial populations and its functional activity (metabolic potential). Therefore, we compared a set of soil microbial properties in the field experiment of two hop production systems (a) ecological based on the use of probiotic preparations and organic fertilization (b) conventional—with the use of chemical pesticides and mineral fertilizers. Soil analyses included following microbial properties: The total number microorganisms, a bunch of soil enzyme activities, the catabolic potential was also assessed following Biolog EcoPlates^®. Moreover, the abundance of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) was characterized by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis (T-RFLP) of PCR ammonia monooxygenase α-subunit (amoA) gene products. Conventional and ecological systems of hop production were able to affect soil microbial state in different seasonal manner. Favorable effect on soil microbial activity met under ecological, was more probably due to livestock-based manure and fermented plant extracts application. No negative influence on conventional hopyard soil was revealed. Both type of production fulfilled fertilizing demands. Under ecological production it was due to livestock-based manure fertilizers and fermented plant extracts application.

Quantitative trait loci in hop (Humulus lupulus L.) reveal complex genetic architecture underlying variation in sex, yield and cone chemistry

BACKGROUND

Hop (Humulus lupulus L.) is cultivated for its cones, the secondary metabolites of which contribute bitterness, flavour and aroma to beer. Molecular breeding methods, such as marker assisted selection (MAS), have great potential for improving the efficiency of hop breeding. The success of MAS is reliant on the identification of reliable marker-trait associations. This study used quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis to identify marker-trait associations for hop, focusing on traits related to expediting plant sex identification, increasing yield capacity and improving bittering, flavour and aroma chemistry.

RESULTS

QTL analysis was performed on two new linkage maps incorporating transferable Diversity Arrays Technology (DArT) markers. Sixty-three QTL were identified, influencing 36 of the 50 traits examined. A putative sex-linked marker was validated in a different pedigree, confirming the potential of this marker as a screening tool in hop breeding programs. An ontogenetically stable QTL was identified for the yield trait dry cone weight; and a QTL was identified for essential oil content, which verified the genetic basis for variation in secondary metabolite accumulation in hop cones. A total of 60 QTL were identified for 33 secondary metabolite traits. Of these, 51 were pleiotropic/linked, affecting a substantial number of secondary metabolites; nine were specific to individual secondary metabolites.

CONCLUSIONS

Pleiotropy and linkage, found for the first time to influence multiple hop secondary metabolites, have important implications for molecular selection methods. The selection of particular secondary metabolite profiles using pleiotropic/linked QTL will be challenging because of the difficulty of selecting for specific traits without adversely changing others. QTL specific to individual secondary metabolites, however, offer unequalled value to selection programs. In addition to their potential for selection, the QTL identified in this study advance our understanding of the genetic control of traits of current economic and breeding significance in hop and demonstrate the complex genetic architecture underlying variation in these traits. The linkage information obtained in this study, based on transferable markers, can be used to facilitate the validation of QTL, crucial to the success of MAS.

Arginine Decarboxylase expression, polyamines biosynthesis and reactive oxygen species during organogenic nodule formation in hop

Hop (Humulus lupulus L.) is an economically important plant species used in beer production and as a health-promoting medicine. Hop internodes develop upon stress treatments organogenic nodules which can be used for genetic transformation and micropropagation. Polyamines are involved in plant development and stress responses. Arginine decarboxylase (ADC; EC 4·1.1·19) is a key enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of putrescine in plants. Here we show that ADC protein was increasingly expressed at early stages of hop internode culture (12h). Protein continued accumulating until organogenic nodule formation after 28 days, decreasing thereafter. The same profile was observed for ADC transcript suggesting transcriptional regulation of ADC gene expression during morphogenesis. The highest transcript and protein levels observed after 28 days of culture were accompanied by a peak in putrescine levels. Reactive oxygen species accumulate in nodular tissues probably due to stress inherent to in vitro conditions and enhanced polyamine catabolism. Conjugated polyamines increased during plantlet regeneration from nodules suggesting their involvement in plantlet formation and/or in the control of free polyamine levels. Immunogold labeling revealed that ADC is located in plastids, nucleus and cytoplasm of nodular cells. In vacuolated cells, ADC immunolabelling in plastids doubled the signal of proplastids in meristematic cells. Location of ADC in different subcellular compartments may indicate its role in metabolic pathways taking place in these compartments. Altogether these data suggest that polyamines play an important role in organogenic nodule formation and represent a progress towards understanding the role played by these growth regulators in plant morphogenesis.

Regeneration and Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of hop (Humulus lupulus L.)

An efficient procedure for direct organogenesis and regeneration of hop (Humulus lupulus L.) was established. For the first time Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation of hop (cv. "Tettnanger") was achieved. Shoot internodes from in vitro cultures were identified as the most suitable type of explant for regeneration. Using this type of explant, a shoot-inducing medium was developed that supported direct organogenesis of approximately 50% of the explants. Plantlets were successfully rooted and transferred to the greenhouse. Overall, in less than 6 months hop cultures propagated in vitro were regenerated to plants in the greenhouse. Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation was performed with the reporter gene GUS (beta-glucuronidase). The presence and function of transgenes in plants growing in the greenhouse was verified by PCR (polymerase chain reaction) and enzyme assay for GUS activity, respectively. We have obtained 21 transgenic plants from 1,440 explants initially transformed, yielding an overall transformation efficiency of 1.5%.

Virus-infections of wild hops in Hamburg

More than 200 samples from wild hops were collected in the city of Hamburg and tested for the presence of PNRV/ApMV, ArMV, HLV and HMV. All viruses were detected, but in case of the ilarviruses (ApMV/PNRV) no reaction was found in DAS-ELISA using ApMV antiserum, indicating, that, different to earlier results mainly from wild hops of southern areas of Germany, neither A nor I-types were present, but only C-type corresponding to the cherry strains of PNRV. Compared to results from escaped and cultivated hops, infestation was rather low but differing to some extent from data obtained for wild hops in other, mainly non-urban regions.