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Caminhas LD, Freitas Pereira de Souza G, Rath S. Assessment of tropane alkaloid levels in Brazilian buckwheat flour products: A novel LC-UHPLC-MS/MS approach using solid-liquid extraction at low temperature. Food Chem 2024; 438:138010. [PMID: 37983999 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.138010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the monitoring of tropane alkaloids, specifically hyoscyamine and scopolamine, in food has become a pressing concern. This is due to increasing reports of food contamination with these compounds worldwide, raising awareness about the potential risks associated with their consumption. A novel method is proposed here for the determination of the sum of (+)-hyoscyamine, (-)-hyoscyamine, and (-)-scopolamine in buckwheat-based matrices, using solid-liquid extraction at low temperature and quantification by bidimensional chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The validated method presented a linear response in the concentration range of 2.5-15 μg kg-1 (r > 0.99). The precision and accuracy were in the ranges from 0.8 to 11.0 % and from 96 to 103 %, respectively. The limit of quantification (LOQ) was 2.5 μg kg-1. No contamination was found at levels above the LOQ in any of the 18 samples analyzed (buckwheat flour, grains, and gluten-free mix).
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa D Caminhas
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, Rua Monteiro Lobato, 270, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP 13083-862, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Freitas Pereira de Souza
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, Rua Monteiro Lobato, 270, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP 13083-862, Brazil
| | - Susanne Rath
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, Rua Monteiro Lobato, 270, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP 13083-862, Brazil.
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Hu X, Liu W, Yan Y, Deng H, Cai Y. Tropinone reductase: A comprehensive review on its role as the key enzyme in tropane alkaloids biosynthesis. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 253:127377. [PMID: 37839598 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
TAs, including hyoscyamine and scopolamine, were used to treat neuromuscular disorders ranging from nerve agent poisoning to Parkinson's disease. Tropinone reductase I (TR-I; EC 1.1.1.206) catalyzed the conversion of tropinone into tropine in the biosynthesis of TAs, directing the metabolic flow towards hyoscyamine and scopolamine. Tropinone reductase II (TR-II; EC 1.1.1.236) was responsible for the conversion of tropinone into pseudotropine, diverting the metabolic flux towards calystegine A3. The regulation of metabolite flow through both branches of the TAs pathway seemed to be influenced by the enzymatic activity of both enzymes and their accessibility to the precursor tropinone. The significant interest in the utilization of metabolic engineering for the efficient production of TAs has highlighted the importance of TRs as crucial enzymes that govern both the direction of metabolic flow and the yield of products. This review discussed recent advances for the TRs sources, properties, protein structure and biocatalytic mechanisms, and a detailed overview of its crucial role in the metabolism and synthesis of TAs was summarized. Furthermore, we conducted a detailed investigation into the evolutionary origins of these two TRs. A prospective analysis of potential challenges and applications of TRs was presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxiang Hu
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
| | - Wenjing Liu
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
| | - Yi Yan
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
| | - Huaxiang Deng
- Center for Synthetic Biochemistry, Institute of Synthetic Biology, Institutes of Advanced Technologies, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yujie Cai
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China.
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Bhattacharjee A, Naga R, Saha M, Karmakar S, Pal A, Roy S. Viral inhibitory potential of hyoscyamine in Japanese encephalitis virus-infected embryonated chicken eggs involving multiple signaling pathways. Arch Virol 2023; 168:264. [PMID: 37787913 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-023-05883-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the leading cause of viral encephalitis worldwide. The emergence of new genotypes of the virus and a high rate of mutation make it necessary to develop alternative treatment strategies against this deadly pathogen. Although the antiviral properties of Atropa belladonna and some of its active components, such as atropine and scopolamine, have been studied, the effect of another important component, hyoscyamine, against JEV infection has not yet been investigated. In this study, we investigated the antiviral effect of hyoscyamine against JEV and its immunomodulatory activity in embryonated chicken eggs. Pretreatment with hyoscyamine sulphate resulted in a significant decrease in the viral load in both chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) and brain tissues at 48 and 96 hours postinfection. In silico studies showed stable binding and interaction between hyoscyamine and non-structural protein 5 (NS5), suggesting that this could be the basis of its antiviral effect. Embryonated eggs pretreated with hyoscyamine sulphate showed upregulation of Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3), TLR7, TLR8, interleukin 4 (IL-4), and IL-10 as well as interferons and regulatory factors. Hyoscyamine sulphate was also found to cause significant downregulation of TLR4. The potential use of hyoscyamine for controlling JEV replication and its dissemination to the brain suggest that it may be a promising therapy option against JEV in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arghyadeep Bhattacharjee
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, West Bengal, India.
- Department of Microbiology, Kingston College of Science, Beruanpukuria, Malikapur, Kolkata-126, West Bengal, India.
| | - Rahul Naga
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, West Bengal, India
| | - Manish Saha
- Department of Cardiology, R.G Kar Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| | - Srabani Karmakar
- Department of Microbiology, Kingston College of Science, Beruanpukuria, Malikapur, Kolkata-126, West Bengal, India
| | - Abhishek Pal
- Department of Microbiology, Ramkrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur, Howrah, West Bengal, India
| | - Souvik Roy
- Department of Biotechnology, St. Xavier's College, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
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Zamar DL, Papon N, Courdavault V. The Evolutionary Pattern of Cocaine and Hyoscyamine Biosynthesis Provides Strategies To Produce Tropane Alkaloids. Chembiochem 2023; 24:e202300234. [PMID: 37249120 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202300234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Cocaine and hyoscyamine are two tropane alkaloids (TA) from Erythroxylaceae and Solanaceae, respectively. These famous compounds possess anticholinergic properties that can be used to treat neuromuscular disorders. While the hyoscyamine biosynthetic pathway has been fully elucidated allowing its de novo synthesis in yeast, the cocaine pathway remained only partially elucidated. Recently, the Huang research group has completed the cocaine biosynthetic route by characterizing its two missing enzymes. This allowed the whole pathway to be transferring into Nicotiana benthamiana to achieve cocaine production. Here, besides highlighting the impact of this discovery, we discuss how TA biosynthesis evolved via the recruitment of two distinct and convergent pathways in Erythroxylaceae and Solanaceae. Finally, while enriching our knowledge on TA biosynthesis, this diversification of the molecular actors involved in cocaine and hyoscyamine biosynthesis opens perspectives in metabolic engineering by exploring enzyme biochemical plasticity that can ease and shorten TA pathway reconstitution in heterologous organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duchesse-Lacours Zamar
- Université de Tours, Faculté de Pharmacie, EA2106 Biomolécules et Biotechnologies Végétales, 31, Avenue Monge, 37200, Tours, France
| | - Nicolas Papon
- Université d'Angers, Fungal Respiratory Infections Research Unit, University Hospital of Angers, 4 rue de Larrey, 49933, Angers Cedex 09, France
| | - Vincent Courdavault
- Université de Tours, Faculté de Pharmacie, EA2106 Biomolécules et Biotechnologies Végétales, 31, Avenue Monge, 37200, Tours, France
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Wang YJ, Tain T, Yu JY, Li J, Xu B, Chen J, D’Auria J, Huang JP, Huang SX. Genomic and structural basis for evolution of tropane alkaloid biosynthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2302448120. [PMID: 37068250 PMCID: PMC10151470 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2302448120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The tropane alkaloids (TAs) cocaine and hyoscyamine have been used medicinally for thousands of years. To understand the evolutionary origins and trajectories of serial biosynthetic enzymes of TAs and especially the characteristic tropane skeletons, we generated the chromosome-level genome assemblies of cocaine-producing Erythroxylum novogranatense (Erythroxylaceae, rosids clade) and hyoscyamine-producing Anisodus acutangulus (Solanaceae, asterids clade). Comparative genomic and phylogenetic analysis suggested that the lack of spermidine synthase/N-methyltransferase (EnSPMT1) in ancestral asterids species contributed to the divergence of polyamine (spermidine or putrescine) methylation in cocaine and hyoscyamine biosynthesis. Molecular docking analysis and key site mutation experiments suggested that ecgonone synthases CYP81AN15 and CYP82M3 adopt different active-site architectures to biosynthesize the same product ecgonone from the same substrate in Erythroxylaceae and Solanaceae. Further synteny analysis showed different evolutionary origins and trajectories of CYP81AN15 and CYP82M3, particularly the emergence of CYP81AN15 through the neofunctionalization of ancient tandem duplication genes. The combination of structural biology and comparative genomic analysis revealed that ecgonone methyltransferase, which is responsible for the biosynthesis of characteristic 2-substituted carboxymethyl group in cocaine, evolved from the tandem copies of salicylic acid methyltransferase by the mutations of critical E216 and S153 residues. Overall, we provided strong evidence for the independent origins of serial TA biosynthetic enzymes on the genomic and structural level, underlying the chemotypic convergence of TAs in phylogenetically distant species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Jiang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming650201, China
| | - Tian Tain
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming650201, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100049, China
| | - Jia-Yi Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming650201, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100049, China
| | - Jie Li
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming650201, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100049, China
| | - Bingyan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming650201, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100049, China
| | - Jianghua Chen
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming650223, China
| | - John C. D’Auria
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research Ortsteil Gatersleben, SeelandD-06466, Germany
| | - Jian-Ping Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming650201, China
| | - Sheng-Xiong Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming650201, China
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Li X, Qiang W, Qiu F, Chen M, Lan XZ, Liao ZH, Liu XQ. [Cloning and characterization of an aromatic amino acid aminotransferase(ArAT) gene involved in tropane alkaloid biosynthesis from Hyoscyamus niger]. Yao Xue Xue Bao 2017; 52:172-179. [PMID: 29911833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Tropane alkaloids are anticholinergic drugs widely used clinically. Biosynthesis of tropane alkaloids in planta involves a step of transamination of phenylalanine. Based on the sequenced transcriptomes of lateral roots and leaves of Hyoscyamus niger, we found three annotated aromatic amino acid aminotransferases, which were respectively named HnArAT1, HnArAT2 and HnArAT3. Sequence analysis showed that HnArAT3 had highest similarity with the reported Atropa belladonna Ab Ar AT4, which was involved in tropane alkaloid(TA) to provide the precursor of the phenyllactic acid moiety. Tissue expression pattern analysis indicated that HnArAT3 was specifically expressed in lateral roots, where is the organ synthesizing tropane alkaloids. Then, method of virus induced gene silencing (VIGS) was used to characterize the function of HnArAT3 in H. niger. Gene expression analysis given by real-time quantitative PCR showed that all the transgenic lines had lower expression levels of HnArAT3 than the non-transgenic control, and HPLC analysis of alkaloids demonstrated significant decrease in the contents of hyoscyamine, anisodamine and scopolamine in planta. These results suggested that HnArAT3 was involved in the phenyllactic acid branch of TA biosynthetic pathway. Molecular cloning and functional identification of HnArAT3 laid the foundation for further understanding of TA biosynthesis and metabolic regulation, and also provided a new candidate gene for engineering biosynthetic pathway of tropane alkaloids.
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RIDDELL MJ. Interdigestive gastric secretion in duodenal ulcer; a study of the comparative inhibition by hexamethonium iodide and L- hyoscyamine. Br Med J 2004; 2:1498-1500. [PMID: 14886635 PMCID: PMC2070872 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.2.4746.1498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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DIAMANT H, FEINMESSER M. Atropine as an antisialogogue, compared with l- hyoscyamine (bellafoline), scopolamine butylbromide (buscopan) and oxyphenonium (antrenyl). Br J Anaesth 2000; 31:205-9. [PMID: 13662482 DOI: 10.1093/bja/31.5.205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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BUECHI J, ZIMMERMANN A. [STUDY ON THE SEPARATE DETERMINATION OF ATROPINE, HYOSCYAMINE AND SCOPOLAMINE WITH PAPER AND THIN-LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY. 1]. Pharm Acta Helv 1965; 40:292-301. [PMID: 14298576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2023]
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SEILER N, WERNER G. [AN ENZYMATIC METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE RATE OF RACEMIZATION OF HYOSCYAMINE AND SCOPOLAMINE]. Arzneimittelforschung 1965; 15:189. [PMID: 14263141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2023]
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BECK EB, PENNER MH, TALMAGE JM. Determination of Hyoscyamine Hydrobromide in a Multicomponent Tablet. J Pharm Sci 1964; 53:1257-8. [PMID: 14249454 DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600531032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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TEITEL A. The cholinergic action of hyoscyamine. Rum Med Rev 1961; 5:270-1. [PMID: 13775746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/24/2023]
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DE BRUYN JW, VAN HALL JG. [Determination of small quantities of hyoscyamine & hyoscine in medicinal plants]. Pharm Weekbl 1959; 94:262-9. [PMID: 13657664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2023]
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HUEBER EF, THALER H. [Studies of new type of drugs with depot-action. I. Use of a hyoscyamine preparation in spastic disorders of the gastrointestinal tract]. Munch Med Wochenschr 1958; 100:726-9. [PMID: 13565942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2023]
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LIEBER C. [Comparative acute toxicity of atropine, L- hyoscyamine and three synthetic anticholinergic drugs]. C R Seances Soc Biol Fil 1957; 151:614-5. [PMID: 13480051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
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BUCHS J. [ Hyoscyamine-scopolamine relation in commercial samples of drugs containing tropane alkaloids, paper chromatographic determination]. Pharm Acta Helv 1956; 31:561-81. [PMID: 13388608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
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VAN PINXTEREN JA, VERLOOP ME, WESTERINK D. [Atropine ( hyoscyamine) determination with tetraphenylborate (kalignost)]. Pharm Weekbl 1956; 91:873-83. [PMID: 13388642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
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DANIELOPOLU D, PATAC M. [Non-specific pharmacodynamic study of Solanaceae alkaloids: non-specific pharmacodynamic study of scopolamine and hyoscyamine action on terminal organs; antagonism between such alkaloids and strophanthin and eserine]. Bul Stiint Sect Stiint Medicale Acad Republicii Pop Romane 1954; 6:491-507. [PMID: 14351853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2023]
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FLUCK H, NISOLI A. [Influence of manure, of the suppression of flowers and fruits, and of the distance between plants on the alkaloid content and on the scopolamine/ hyoscyamine ratio in Datura innoxia Miller]. Ann Pharm Fr 1954; 12:250-7. [PMID: 13189196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
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KWASNIEWSKI V. [New studies on volatility of hyoscyamine and atropine respectively in asthma fumigations with solanaceous alkaloids]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1953; 78:1592-3. [PMID: 13107400 DOI: 10.1055/s-0028-1115012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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BRADLEY PB, ELKES J. The effect of atropine, hyoscyamine, physostigmine and neostigmine on the electrical activity of the brain of the conscious cat. J Physiol 1953; 120:14P-15P. [PMID: 13062251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
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FRYKLOF LE. [Racemisation of the 1- hyoscyamine in preparation of the dry belladonna extract]. Pharm Acta Helv 1952; 27:175-9. [PMID: 12983137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
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SCHILL G, AGREN A. Separation of hyoscyamine and scopolamine. Sven Farm Tidskr 1952; 56:55-8. [PMID: 14931309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
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THOMAS JE, CRIDER JO. The secretion of pancreatic juice in the presence of atropine or hyoscyamine in chronic fistula dogs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1946; 87:81-89. [PMID: 20989220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023] Open
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LEVY J. [Pharmacological Action and Comparative Toxicity Of Hyoscyamine and Atropine]. Bull Soc Chim Biol (Paris) 1945; 27:425-431. [PMID: 21020855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
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