Long-term mechanical milking status of lacerated teat repaired surgically in cattle: 67 cases (2003-2013)

This study evaluated the long-term prognosis of return to normal mechanical milking after reconstructive teat surgery and determined the factors that have an impact on the outcome. A retrospective study of 67 dairy cows with teat lacerations was performed. Milking status at discharge and at long-term follow-up was adequate for 83% and 75% of the cows, respectively. No statistically significant differences were detected between the long-term prognosis and the age of the cow, the stage of lactation at presentation, or the configuration of the laceration. Lacerations repaired more than 24 hours after the trauma were more frequently associated with a negative outcome (P = 0.05). Mastitis was the most frequent complication (n = 17) and had a statistically significant negative impact on long-term prognosis (P = 0.02). Reconstructive surgery of lacerated teat in dairy cows can help establish return to normal mechanical milking.

Clinical, Bacteriological, Cytological and Pathological Features of Teat Disorders in Ewes

We describe the features of 13 cases of teat disorders in ewes, as follows: lengthy teats (one case), papilloma infection (two), staphylococcal dermatitis (one), nodules and abscesses (two), teat bites (three), stenosis (one), orf (two), compressed teat (one). Mannheimia haemolytica, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus simulans or Staphylococcus aureus were isolated from samples. Sub-epithelial leucocytic infiltration at the teat duct-teat cistern border, but not lymphoid nodules, was the salient histological finding in the teat. Leucocytic infiltration and destruction of parenchyma were evident in the mammary gland. The results provide field evidence suggesting that teat lesions predispose ewes to mastitis.

Teat disorders predispose ewes to clinical mastitis after challenge with Mannheimia haemolytica

In order to study the effects of sheep teat disorders on the protection of the mammary gland, we used a Mannheimia haemolytica isolate, which did not cause clinical mastitis when deposited into intact teats. In the first experiment, this was deposited into the duct of teats with orf (Group A, n=5) or papilloma (Group B, n=3). In the second, teats were chapped and then, the organism was deposited into the duct (Group C, n=7) or on the skin (Group D, n=4). Ewes with healthy teats were controls (Group E, deposition into duct, n=5; Group F, deposition on skin, n=2). The ewes in Groups A, B or C developed clinical mastitis 5 h later, whilst the ewes in Group D developed it 2 d later; no control ewe developed clinical mastitis. In ewes with teat lesions, the organism was isolated from secretion samples and the California Mastitis Test became positive 5 h after challenge; neutrophils and lymphocytes were seen in Giemsa-stained secretion films from Group A or B ewes, whilst macrophages, neutrophils and lymphocytes in films from Group C or D ewes; neutrophils were predominating in films from Group E or F ewes. Inside the teats of Group A, B, C or D ewes, folds, hyperaemia and mucosal thickness were seen; histologically, subepithelial leucocytic infiltration was seen. In Group A or B ewes, no evidence of lymphoid tissue at the teat duct-cistern border was found. In Group C or D ewes, intense erosion and ulceration of the teat skin and conspicuous lymphoid tissue at the teat duct-cistern border, were evident; lesions characteristic of haemorrhagic mastitis were in the mammary parenchyma. In control ewes, subepithelial leucocytic infiltration in the teat duct and lymphoid tissue as above, were evident. We postulate that teat lesions can be predisposing factor to mastitis, by adversely affecting defences and speeding the process of infection and making it more severe.

Teat tip reconstruction by supernumerary teat autotransplantation in cattle

OBJECTIVE

Evaluation of use of a supernumerary teat as a pedicle graft to repair experimental teat tip damage in cattle.

STUDY DESIGN

Experimental study.

ANIMALS

Mature, non-gravid hybrid cows with > or =1 supernumerary teat.

METHODS

The main teat and adjacent supernumerary teat were examined for patency by ultrasound with a 8 MHz linear array transducer. The tip of the main teat was resected at the junction of cistern and canal. The supernumerary teat was partially resected semi-circumferentially at the cranial aspect of the base to maintain vascular supply and transplanted by end-to-end anastomosis. The pedicle of the supernumerary teat graft was amputated in stages starting at 14 days, again at 16 days and separated at 18 days. Reconstructed teat patency was evaluated at intervals by ultrasonography and confirmed at 50 days by histopathology. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to compare the measurements of luminal diameter between days; significance was set at P<.05.

RESULTS

All reconstructed teats were patent. Decreased luminal diameters were detected at 25, 32, 39, and 46 days by ultrasonography. On histopathology, granulation and epithelial (mucosal) proliferation contributed to luminal reduction.

CONCLUSIONS

In this experimental model of an acute damage to a teat tip, supernumerary teat grafting was successfully used to restore teat anatomy.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Supernumerary teat pedicle grafting may be considered as a salvage technique for reconstruction of a damaged bovine teat in cows that have an adjacent patent supernumerary teat. Function of the reconstructed teat in a lactating cow remains unknown.

Influence of tooth resection in piglets on welfare and performance

In six commercial pig farms, we compared the effects of two methods of tooth resection (tooth clipping with pliers and tooth grinding with a rotating grindstone) on teeth themselves, on skin lesions of piglets and of sow udders as well as on litter growth and survival. An intact group was included for control. Treatments were balanced within herds with sows assigned to one of the three experimental treatments. Observations were from 107 sows and their litters (n = 35 or 36 litters/group) at farrowing (day 0) and approximately 8, 15 and 27 days later. Tooth resection was done within 24 h of birth after cross-fostering. Data concerning sows' lesions were analyzed on a farm basis and those concerning piglets' mortality, growth and skin lesions were analyzed on a litter basis. Frequency and severity of udder lesions differed between treatments at farrowing and on day 8; differences depended on the location of the teats (front, median or rear). Litter size and liveweight of piglets on day 0 (11.9+/-0.1 pigs, 1.51+/-0.03 kg) and on day 27 (10.8+/-0.1 pigs, 8.08+/-0.10 kg) were similar in the three groups (mean+/-S.E.M., n = 107). Skin lesions on piglets were more frequent and/or severe in intact than in clipped piglets on days 8 and 27, whereas ground piglets had intermediate results. Because the length of the teeth was similar after clipping and grinding (P > 0.1), tooth shortening itself does not explain the differences between treatments. Overall, tooth resection had very little effect on sow mammary injuries and litter performance. It might reduce skin damage to piglets (especially, when it is performed by clipping) but teeth are severely injured.

Milk flow and udder health in cows after treatment of covered teat injuries via theloresectoscopy: 52 cases (2000-2002)

OBJECTIVE

To determine milk flow, somatic cell counts (SCCs), and the incidence of clinical mastitis in cows that had undergone theloresectoscopy for treatment of teat stenosis caused by mucosal detachment in the region of the streak canal or Fürstenberg's rosette.

DESIGN

Retrospective study.

ANIMALS

52 cows with teat stenosis that were treated via theloresectoscopy.

PROCEDURE

Medical records of eligible cows were reviewed. Additional data regarding milking ease, SCC, development of clinical mastitis of the affected gland, and whether the cow remained in the herd were collected via owner-completed questionnaires.

RESULTS

49 of 52 questionnaires were completed. At referral, teat sinusitis was diagnosed in 29 of 52 cows. Milk flow was normal in 38 of 41 treated teats at discharge and in 24 of 40 during the next lactation. Thirteen of 49 cows were culled during the next lactation because of abnormal udder health. High SCC and teat sinusitis at referral and development of clinical mastitis during the 10-day period after surgery resulted in high SCCs in the remainder of the current lactation. The incidence of clinical mastitis during the remainder of the current and during the next lactation was higher in cows that had teat sinusitis at the time of surgery, compared with those that did not.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Teat stenoses resulting from mucosal lesions in the region of the streak canal or Fürstenberg's rosette may be successfully treated via theloresectoscopy. Inflammation of the teat sinus and gland at the time of surgery may adversely affect udder health.

Procedures and surgeries of the teat

Injuries to the end of the teat are frequent and frustrating to treat. Treatment of these injuries evolved from being aggressive using teat knives to a more conservative approach employing rest nonreactive teat inserts. The process of milking seems simple, but it involves fine-tuned mechanics. Teat fibrosis, even when small, has a disastrous effect on the production life of an animal. There is no place for error; any surgical intervention should be precise and aim for perfection. Medical imaging techniques and minimally invasive surgery help the surgeon to make the best decision. Finally, more investigation is needed to treat varicose veins to understand the origin and develop better treatment. Teat injuries have drawn more attention more recently. Surgical interventions are better planned, and blind treatment with unsuitable teat knives is avoided. Treatment of superficial of full-thickness teat lacerations does not require a high level of anatomic or surgical knowledge, although basic surgical principles should be applied. Hemostasis, delicate débridgement and tissue handling, and appropriate suture materials and patterns are key to success. Appropriate sedation, anesthesia, and analgesia are essential to achieve this goal and should never be neglected.

Teat endoscopy (theloscopy) for diagnosis and therapy of milk flow disorders in dairy cows

Teat endoscopy (theloscopy) is a useful technique for diagnosis and therapy of covered teat injuries. Minimal invasive theloscopic surgery may help to restore milk flow, milk yield, and SCC of the affected quarter. Infection with pathogens may not change significantly, however. Cows treated as described may yield as much milk as their herdmates at a slightly increased udder SCC and stay as long in the herd as their herdmates. Theloscopy also may be used for diagnosis and therapy of various other teat disorders.

Spontaneous recanalization of the divided lactiferous duct in the rat

The objectives of the current study were to test the hypotheses that ductus lactiferous may regenerate after its transection and to develop a reproducible model for future studies. A total of 168 nipples from 14 Wistar female rats were used in this experimental study. This study was conducted in 2 parts. During part 1, the normal anatomy of the lactiferous duct and its histomorphologic features were studied. This group was also used for histologic and morphometric comparison. During part 2, the lactiferous duct was exposed through a vertical incision and was transected by scissors. A small gap was produced by elastic retraction of the surrounding tissue. The authors assessed patency mainly by histologic evaluation. Galactography was performed to collect additional support for the recanalization process. The patency rate of the lactiferous ducts was 66.6%. Luminal narrowing was observed in all specimens. A significant difference did occur in the mean cross-sectional area (P < 0.01) and the wall thickness (P < 0.05) between 2 groups. A computed stereologic image analyzer was used to estimate the mean surface area of a lactiferous duct and the wall thickness.

[Endoscopic, pathologic-anatomic and histologic findings in the bovine teat. 2. Changes in the area of Fürstenberg's rosette]

In the present study endoscopically diagnosed changes of the Fürstenberg's rosette were examined histologically. For this purpose the teats of 200 slaughtered cows were inspected. In 19 cases proliferations in the region of the Fürstenberg's rosette were found. Additionally, tissue samples were taken from the Fürstenberg's rosette of 26 cows which showed milk flow disorders due to stenoses of this part of the teat. Teats of slaughtered cows as well as biopsy specimens were fixed in 5% formaldehyde and embedded in paraffin and in plastic. All specimens were stained according to H.E., Giemsa and Turnbull, respectively. Histologically, the proliferations of the Fürstenberg's rosette consisted of fibrovascular tissue (granulation tissue) covered by keratinized squamous epithelium (teat canal epithelium) in eleven cases. In the other cases double-layered cuboid epithelium (cisternal epithelium) was found additionally. The formation of granulation tissue and deposition of blood pigment was observed exclusively in areas covered by stratified epithelium. Therefore a traumatic lesion of the teat canal was supposed to be the cause of the histological findings. In contrast to several reports in the literature, however, no indications of an inversion of the teat canal epithelium were found. On the basis of these findings, the hitherto assumed idea of pathogenesis of proliferations of the Fürstenberg's rosette was modified and a new pathogenesis pattern was developed.

The effects of reducing the length of canine teeth in sucking pigs by clipping or grinding

OBJECTIVE

To provide production data that would support or discount current teeth clipping practices in sucking pigs.

DESIGN

Intervention study of 207 litters of pigs on a commercial farm.

PROCEDURE

Litters were assigned to one of three interventions undertaken at 1 day of age: clipped using hand-operated side cutter pliers, ground using a battery-operated grinder or left intact. The effects of the intervention on weaning weight, preweaning mortality, facial lesions, gum damage and arthritis in litters of pigs were recorded, as was the incidence of udder damage of the sows. Weight gain and facial damage postweaning of pigs within each intervention group were recorded. The cost:benefit of each intervention was determined.

RESULTS

Average weaning weight of pigs whose teeth were clipped was higher than of those whose teeth were ground but not of those with intact teeth. Clipping resulted in fewer preweaning deaths than both unclipped and ground litters due to fewer overlays. The incidence and severity of face scarring was higher in unclipped litters than clipped and ground litters. Treatment had no effect on face scars at weaning, udder damage, post-treatment fostering, time of preweaning deaths or postweaning weight gain. There was an additional labour cost of 6 cents per pig with teeth clipping.

CONCLUSION

This study supports teeth clipping of sucking pigs because there are welfare, production and financial benefits including reduced facial damage and preweaning mortality.

Experimental reconstruction of teat mucosa by vestibular mucosal graft in cows. A histopathologic and radiographic study

Injuries to the teat in dairy cows can result in partial or complete obstruction of the teat lumen. Different treatment techniques have been used to restore normal function in injured teats, one of which is autogenous mucosal grafts. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the vestibular mucosa as a replacement for teat mucosa in severe teat injuries. Sixteen teats of four healthy, mature, non-gravid Jersey cows were randomly divided into two equal groups. Under high epidural analgesia and after surgical preparation a 1 x 1.5 cm piece of teat mucosa was removed. In group 1, the defect was replaced by a 2 x 2.5 cm vestibular mucosa, whereas in group 2, the defect was left open. In both groups, a sterile disposable teat cannula was inserted into the teat cistern following surgery. To evaluate luminal diameter, double contrast radiography with constant air pressure was performed every 25 days till day 125, after which the animals were slaughtered and teats removed for histopathological study (H&E staining). On the basis of radiographic examination, luminal narrowing in group 2 was significantly more severe than in group 1. Histopathologically, the entire mucosal grafts of group 1 were taken and a good adhesion could be seen between the graft and the host epithelium. In group 2, severe submucosal fibrosis and mucosal papilloid hyperplasia resulted in severe narrowing of the teat cistern. According to the results of this study, it can be concluded that using vestibular mucosal grafts with temporary insertion of teat cannula can be considered as a method of treating teat mucosal injuries.

Comparative evaluation of SIMPL silicone implants and NIT natural teat inserts to keep the teat canal patent after surgery

The objective of this study was the comparative evaluation of SIMPL silicone implants and NIT natural teat inserts to keep the teat canal patent after teat surgery. The study was performed on 100 teats of 97 cows treated surgically for milk flow disorders. After surgery, 53 teats were administered with SIMPL and 47 with NIT, and rested for several days. Before treatment and 1 and 6 mo later quarter milk flow and milk yield were measured with Lactocorders; quarter milk was examined for somatic cell count (SCC), pathogens, and signs of mastitis (SCC > 100,000 and pathogens detected). Half a year after surgery milk flow, milk yield and SCC were equal from teats that had been inserted with SIMPL or NIT. The odds of detecting pathogens or signs of mastitis in the milk was lower in SIMPL than in NIT teats at this point in time. SIMPL teats stayed in the herd as long as NIT teats. Based on the results, it may be expected that teats inserted with a SIMPL or NIT do not differ long term in regards to milk flow, milk yield, SCC, and risk of removal from the herd. After the use of SIMPL, fewer pathogens may be detected in the milk long term than after the use of NIT.

Investigations on milk flow and milk yield from teats with milk flow disorders

The objective of this study was to investigate peak milk flow, average milk flow, and milk yield in teats with milk flow disorders. A total of 100 hard milking teats were studied in 97 cows. Teats with milk flow disorders were examined endoscopically. Quarter milk flow and quarter milk yield were examined with four Lactocorders attached to a quarter milking machine. Peak milk flow, average milk flow, and milk yield were measured in all teats of the udder before treatment of the affected teat, as well as 1 and 6 mo later. Teats with milk flow disorders were compared to all other teats of the same udder. Before treatment, peak milk flow from affected teats was 20%, average milk flow 14%, and milk yield 53% of the control teats, adjusted for other significant explanatory variables. Milk flow and milk yield increased after surgical treatment of the affected teats. Six months after treatment peak milk flow was 79%, average milk flow 76%, milk yield was 71% compared with control teats. We conclude from these findings that teat endoscopy and measuring quarter milk flow and milk yield with Lactocorders are useful tools for examining teats with milk flow disorders.

Foot/leg and udder health in relation to housing changes in Swedish dairy herds

Monthly herd disease incidence rate or prevalence estimates in 196 Swedish commercial dairy herds from 1988 to 1995 were collected retrospectively from the official milk-recording scheme and merged with county administrative and farmers' data on housing and management. To study the effects of changes in housing system on the occurrence of veterinary-treated foot/leg disorders, clinical mastitis, teat injuries and high milk somatic cell counts (MSCCs), four marginal Poisson or negative-binomial regression models were applied to the data (6011-7063 herd-month records), using the generalized estimating-equations method. Monthly observations were treated as repeated measures within herds. There were significant transitory increases in the incidence of clinical foot/leg disorders when changing from tie-stalls to cubicles and decreases in the incidences of clinical mastitis and teat injuries when changing from tie-stalls to cubicle or straw-yard systems. Effects on foot/leg health generally lasted for <18 months after building finish, while udder-health improvements persisted >18 months. Reductions in the incidence of clinical mastitis were not accompanied by any clear changes in the prevalence of high MSCCs.

Effect of over-milking on teat condition

Unsatisfactory milking conditions, including high milking vacuum, ineffective pulsation, heavy clusters, unsuitable liners, poor teat preparation and over-milking, are known to create poor, but undefined, teat conditions and pose a risk to an increased probability of intramammary infection (IDF, 1994). It has been shown that poor teat condition, seen as discolouration, abnormal firmness or thickened rings of tissue distally, after cluster removal may be common in a variety of commercial milking operations (Hillerton et al. 2000). That field study was observational and teat conditions were influenced by a number of variables. A small experimental study has been undertaken to develop an experimental model, under controlled milking conditions, to allow investigation of potential causes of teat trauma. Over-milking was suggested as highly important in the field observations and so has been examined in this study.

Electrochemical treatment (EChT) effects in rat mammary and liver tissue. In vivo optimizing of a dose-planning model for EChT of tumours

BACKGROUND

A reinvented technique for tumour therapy, electrochemical treatment (EChT), is attracting increasing attention. This study compared results from treatment of liver and mammary tissue focusing on destruction and pH changes in the tissue close to the treatment electrodes. Subsequently, data were compared with a dose-planning model.

METHODS

Mammary or liver tissue in 50 adult female Sprague Dawley rats was given EChT with a constant, direct current. The electrodes used were Pt/Ir (9:1) with spherical tips. In situ pH measurements were taken with a micro-combination glass electrode.

RESULTS

Spherical lesions were produced in both liver and mammary tissue. No significant difference was detected when comparing the size of the lesions in the two kinds of tissue. Similar pH profiles were obtained in tissue surrounding the electrodes, with pH values changing rapidly from unphysiological to neutral status within the space of a few millimetres. The pH at the border of the macroscopic destruction zone, regardless of tissue type or coulomb dosage, correlated well with specific values (4.5-5.5 at the anode and between 9 and 10 at the cathode).

CONCLUSION

The analogous destruction patterns in mammary and liver tissue support the hypothesis that EChT has similar results in at least these two different types of tissue. This implies that the destructive pattern caused by the treatment may be the same also in tumours.

Is intersucking in dairy cows the continuation of a habit developed in early life?

Intersucking, i.e., cattle sucking the udder of heifers or cows, is a frequent problem in dairy herds and may lead to udder damage, mastitis, milk loss, and culling of breeding animals. Using epidemiological methods, we conducted an observational cross-sectional study to investigate risk factors for intersucking in Swiss dairy cows. We asked 114 randomly selected dairy farmers about a broad spectrum of environmental factors possibly associated with intersucking, such as housing conditions, management, and feeding of calves, heifers, and cows. Thirty of the 114 farms were confronted with intersucking in cows. The mean proportion of intersucking cows per farm was 1.6%. From a total of 3077 cows (Swiss Brown Cattle, Simmental, and Holstein Friesian) we recorded 49 cows that had performed or were currently intersucking. In 69% of these cows, intersucking had been observed as heifers. Using path analysis and multivariable stepwise backward logistic and linear regression analyses, we revealed that the most important risk factor for intersucking cows was the presence of intersucking heifers on a farm (odds ratio = 7.8). The results suggest that intersucking in cows is the continuation of a habit that was already established in a cow's subadult life. This emphasizes the importance of looking not only at the animal's current environmental situation but also considering its entire life history for the prevention of behavioral problems.

Investigations on teat canal length in teats with milk flow disturbances

The objective of this study was to evaluate teat canal length as a test for tissue ruptures in the area of the teat canal in teats with milk flow disturbances (Medl's test). A total of 133 dairy cows affected with milk flow disturbances in one teat were used for this study. The teat canal length of the affected teat was compared with the teat canal length of the contralateral teat of the same cow. Milk flow disturbances were diagnosed by endoscopy. Diagnoses were categorized as tissue ruptures in the area of the teat canal or other causes such as narrowing of the teat canal, or free foreign bodies in the teat cistern. The median teat canal length was 11 mm in teats with milk flow disturbances, and 8 mm in contralateral control teats. When the test criterion was lengthening of the teat canal by > or =2 mm, 79% of the teat canals with tissue ruptures tested positive (true positive), but 47% of teat canals without tissue ruptures also tested positive (false positive). When the test criterion was unchanged teat canal length, 47% of teat canals with tissue ruptures tested positive, and only 7% of teat canals without tissue ruptures tested positive. Thus, it is concluded that Medl's test may be useful in differentiating causes of milk flow disturbances. However, a more accurate diagnosis may be made by teat endoscopy.

Culling of dairy cows. Part II. Effects of diseases and reproductive performance on culling in Finnish Ayrshire cows

The effects of 15 diseases and reproductive performance on culling were studied in 39727 Finnish Ayrshire cows that calved in 1993 and were followed until culling or next calving. Survival analysis, using the Cox proportional hazards model, was performed with diseases and pregnancy status as time-dependent covariates. Parity, calving season and herd were included as covariates in every model. The effect of the number of inseminations was also studied. The farmer's knowledge of the cow's pregnancy status had a significant effect on culling. It varied according to the stage of lactation a cow was in; the earlier the farmer knew a cow was pregnant, the smaller was the risk of culling. If a cow had not been inseminated at all, her risk of culling was 10 times higher than if she was inseminated once. If a cow was inseminated more than once, she had a slightly lower risk of being culled than a cow inseminated only once. The effect of parity decreased when pregnancy status and number of inseminations were added to the model, indicating that part of the parity effect was accounted for by reproductive performance. Including diseases in the model with pregnancy status and the number of inseminations did not change the effects of reproductive performance on culling. Mastitis, teat injuries and lameness had the greatest effect on culling (whether adjusted for reproductive performance or not), increasing the risk of culling, followed by anestrus, ovarian cysts and milk fever. In general, the effects of diseases decreased when reproductive performance was also accounted for in the model. When pregnancy status was included in the model, the effects of anestrus and ovarian cysts became slightly more protective, but when the number of inseminations was also considered, they became non-significant at the beginning of lactation and they increased the risk of culling at the end of lactation. Sensitivity analysis, which was run to evaluate the effects of our censoring mechanism on the results, indicated that the censoring times (i.e., the time of next calving) were not fully independent of the event (culling) times; the effects of the diseases and pregnancy status at the very end of the lactation changed slightly from the original model.

Culling of dairy cows. Part III. Effects of diseases, pregnancy status and milk yield on culling in Finnish Ayrshire cows

The effects of 15 diseases, pregnancy status and milk yield on culling were studied in 39727 Finnish Ayrshire cows that calved in 1993 and were followed until culling or next calving. Survival analysis, using the Cox proportional hazards model, was performed with diseases, pregnancy status and milk yield as time-dependent covariates. Effects of parity, calving season and herd were also accounted for. Pregnancy status was the single most influential factor affecting culling decisions, followed by milk yield. Several diseases also had a significant effect on culling, the most influential ones being mastitis, lameness, teat injuries, and milk fever. The effects of all of these factors varied according to the stage of lactation. Milk yield had a significant effect on culling decisions, depending on the stage of lactation. At the beginning of lactation, milk production did not have any effect on culling decisions, but later on, the highest producers were at the lowest risk of being culled and the lowest producers had the highest risk. Adjusting for milk yield modified the effects of parity, most diseases and also pregnancy status on culling. Effects of parity increased after including milk yield in the model, indicating that milk yield and parity are interrelated in their effects on culling. The effects of pregnancy status also increased towards the end of lactation when milk yield was accounted for in the model. The effects of mastitis, teat injuries and lameness decreased after adjusting for milk production. These diseases lower milk yield and thus, part of their effect on culling was mediated through milk production. The effects of anestrus and ovarian cysts were mainly modified by pregnancy status, but not by milk yield. The effects of milk fever on culling increased at the beginning of lactation after including milk yield in the model. This suggests that even though cows with milk fever tend to be higher producers, it is the disease as such that triggers the culling decision early in the lactation. The changes in the effects of other diseases after adjusting for milk yield varied, depending on the disease and the stage of lactation.

Long-term follow-up post-cryosurgery in a sheep breast model

This study constitutes the advanced stage of an ongoing project for the development of cryosurgical devices and techniques for breast cryosurgery. The current study focuses on the long-term follow-up post-cryosurgery in a sheep breast model. Results of this study indicate that the cryotreatment site in a sheep breast model cannot be identified up to 5 months post-cryosurgery by means of ultrasound, mammography, or MRI. Histology findings of this study further indicate that there is no gross or microscopic difference between lesions that have been subject to one versus three freeze/thaw cycles. Under either cryosurgical protocol, there is a main cryoinjured region that has uniform destruction of epithelium and healing scar formation and a transition zone of damaged lobules without acini, surrounded by healthy tissues. The cryoinjured region at 5 months post-cryosurgery was found to be about half the diameter of the ultrasound-imaged frozen region during the cryoprocedure. This study shows that, in terms of recovery and regeneration, surgical excision appears to have an advantage over cryosurgery, which results in a more rapid healing process. Based on observations that the cryoinjured region is no smaller than the ultrasound-imaged ice-ball and that the typical thickness of the transition zone is up to 5 mm, a conservative use of the cryosurgical device developed for the current study in an ultrasound-monitored cryoprocedure requires at least 5 mm safety margins of the frozen region radius around the target region.

Milk yield, somatic cell counts, and risk of removal from the herd for dairy cows after covered teat canal injury

The objective of this study was to evaluate milk yield, somatic cell count (SCC), and risk of removal of a cow from the herd after covered teat injury. Teat injuries were diagnosed and treated by using endoscopy. After treatment, teats were rested for 3 x 3 d. Eighty-one cows referred to the Veterinary Clinic Babenhausen were used for this study. Each cow was matched to three herdmates by breed, age, and calving date. Data on milk yield and SCC were available from the records of the Bavarian milk control board. Test day milk yields and lactational milk yields were equal for cows with covered teat injury and herdmates in the lactation when the injury was diagnosed and in the subsequent lactation. Calving interval in the year the injury was diagnosed and the time cows lived in the herd were also equal. However, covered teat injuries significantly increased test day SCC by 128,000 cells/ml of milk. These injuries also significantly increased the odds of subclinical mastitis (SCC > 100,000 on test day) and the odds of violating European milk shipping regulations (SCC > 400,000 on test day). Because increased SCC was significantly associated with decreased milk yield, cows may not have fully utilized their milk yield capacity after covered teat injury.

[Systematic classification of milk flow obstruction in cattle using endoscopic findings with special consideration of hidden teat injuries]

Evaluation of clinical and endoscopic findings in 224 dairy cows, suffering from milk flow hindrance (MFH), led to a systematic categorization. Dairy cows of different age and race, being patients in the Ambulatorische und Geburtshilfliche Veterinärklinik der Justus-Liebig-Universität, Giessen, and the Tierärztliche Klinik Babenhausen, were used as probands. Just a small amount of animals (8.93%) showed causes for MFH that were inborn or non-traumatic, such as inflammations or foreign bodies. In the majority of cases (91.07%) covered teat lesions (CTL) were diagnosed as causes for MFH. The inner orifice of the papillar duct and the papillar duct itself were found to be the by far most frequent locations of traumatic insult, which was diagnosed as avulsion of the mucosa in 86.16% of cases. Minimal invasive endoscopy proved to be a valuable imaging modality to investigate, document and categorize the diverse alterations of the inner teat cistern lining. Basing on clinical and endoscopic findings, MFH is categorized systematically, paying special attention to CTL as its major cause, and illustrated by comparing endoscopic pictures of typical alterations and physiological findings.

[Machine milking and udder health: a literature review]

This article reviews the influence of machine milking on udder health. The main risks are transmission and penetration of pathogens during milking. Pathogens can be transmitted via the hands, cloths, and liners. Irregular fluctuations in the vacuum can cause penetration of mastitis pathogens into or through the teat canal. Such fluctuations are caused by air blasts in the milking machine. Machine milking can also cause teat lesions, although only severe lesions give rise to new infections. Preliminary research results on the influence of the frequency and degree of udder evacuation show that the clinical symptoms of mastitis generally decreases as the frequency and completeness of milking increase. It is concluded that machine milking can influence udder health but that the influence strongly depends on the exposure to pathogens and the quality of the milker.

Interrelationships between herd management practices and udder health status using canonical correspondence analysis

The relationships between the herd-level distribution of udder health measures (traumatic, physical, functional and congestive udder disorders, clinical mastitis and somatic cell counts (SCC) greater than 400 x 10(3) ml-1) and farm (general hygiene, milking practices and housing system) and aggregated individual characteristics were studied by canonical correspondence analysis (CCA). This is a correspondence-analysis technique in which the axes representing disease patterns are expressed as linear combinations of potentially explanatory variables. These main axes can be drawn so that the distribution of diseases for combinations of the main-explanatory managerial variables can be visualized. The type of quarantine for newcomers, type of animal housing, presence of shelter at pasture, use of udder towel before milking, milk production and loss of body condition after calving, were strongly correlated with udder health status. Mastitis and physical udder disorders were associated with the combination of no introduction of replacement heifers and low loss of body condition after calving. Congestive disorders were more common on farms when no quarantine for newcomers was combined with high loss of body condition after calving. Higher clinical and subclinical mastitis incidence risks were associated with the combination of no udder towel, loose housing with high animal density and high milk production. In most cases, clinical mastitis and high SCC were explained by the same covariates but with contrasting levels of those covariates.

[Examination of a novel wax teat bougie for treatment of wounds in the papillary lactiferous sinus of dairy cows with special regard to endoscopic documentation of mucosal reactions compared with conventional teat bougies and a teat cannula]

The present study on a novel wax-teat bougie, developed by Dr. T. GEISHAUSER for treatment of wounds in the papillary lactiferous sinus of dairy cows, has been performed in two phases of investigation. In a first step, fourteen healthy dairy cows (Deutsch Schwarzbunt) in state of early lactation were dried off temporarily for five days, after checking milk samples of all quarters for six following-on days on their bacteriological status, number of somatic cells, conductivity and results of the California-Mastitis-Test (CMT). The drying off was performed on two Quarters with similar cell-count in milk samples each. In one teat of the selected pairs off udder quarters, the wax-bougie was applied (group I), the other corresponding udder quarters were used as a control (group II). After five days of drying off, lactation was started again after removing the bougies in treated quarters. For another five days milk samples out of the quarters in groups I and II were checked in the laboratory tests named above and mean values and increase differences of results were compared. Comparison of increase differences with t-test showed no statistically significant difference between drying off procedures with the wax-bougie and without any treatment in the parameters named above. Courses of counts of somatic cells, conductivity and CMT showed no significant differences between drying off probands by using the novel wax-bougie and drying off without further treatment. In the second phase of the study, fifteen lactating, healthy dairy cows as probands have been split in five groups. Three cows (twelve udder quarters) were dried off for five days by using the novel teat bougie (group D), in three groups (A,B,C) two different types of conventional teat bougies and one type of cannula were used, and, as a control three cows (group E) were dried off without any treatment. Before drying off the udder quarters and after starting lactation again, the condition of the mucosa in the teat papillary lactiferous sinus has been documented by means of endoscopy and the bacteriological status of milk samples has been determined. As a result all udder quarters dried off temporarily showed endoscopically detectable inflammatory-proliferating reactions in the mucosa of the papillary lactiferous sinus, whereas in cows treated with the novel wax-bougie (group D), as well as in the cows of the control group (E), there were no inflammatory reactions detectable at all. These different reactions, basing on the Fisher-test, have to be considered statistically significant (p < 0.001).

Ultrasound-guided retrieval of small foreign objects in subcutaneous tissue

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To identify the physical properties of the materials most easily located in subcutaneous tissue through the use of conventional ultrasound.

METHODS

High-resolution real-time sonography was performed by a credentialed sonographer on a chicken breast impregnated with five objects-a metal paper clip, a wooden toothpick, a plastic coffee stirrer, a shard of glass, and an 18-gauge needle. Transducer frequencies ranging from 3.5 to 7.5 MHz with linear, curvilinear, and sector-scanning formats were used. All images were interpreted by a staff attending radiologist with other study authors present. The chicken breast was then subjected to radiography for comparison.

RESULTS

Wood yielded the strongest acoustic shadow; plastic had the next-best acoustic shadowing. The 7.5-MHz probe yielded its best resolution at shallow depths, whereas the 5-MHz probe was best at greater depths.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that ultrasonography is an excellent technique for the localization and retrieval of nonradiopaque foreign objects in the superficial subcutaneous tissue. It should be given consideration for use in the removal of nonradiopaque superficial foreign objects when conventional radiographic techniques are not effective.

Clinical assessment of udder health status of sows at time of weaning with special reference to bacteriology and cytology in milk

The main objective of this study was to obtain data about the frequencies of teat injuries, udder skin lesions and abnormal palpatory findings of the mammary glands at the day of weaning and 7 days after weaning. Milk samples were collected from mammary glands and teats without clinical changes and from glands and teats showing abnormal clinical appearance. Bacteriological examination was performed and evaluated. The total cell content (TCC) and the polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMNLs) were counted and used as indicators of inflammatory response. Sixty per cent of the lactations showed teat injuries and (or) udder skin lesions irrespective of lactation number. The prevalence of palpable changes increased gradually from the first to the second and subsequent lactations (15%, 30% and 60%), the increase from the first to the second and from the first to the third and subsequent lactations being significant or highly significant (P < 0.05 and P < 0.001). The average number of teats injured per 'lactation with teat injuries' showed a numerical but not significant decrease (3.0, 3.2 and 2.4, respectively). The average number of palpable changes per 'lactation with palpable changes' varied from 1.7 to 2.5. The teat injuries were numerically more frequent within the two thoracic and first three abdominal teat pairs, varying from 11% to 16%. The clinical appearance of the teat injuries and palpatory changes subsided rapidly, 76% and 49% being scored as clinically normal when the re-examination was performed 7 days after weaning. Irrespective of clinical group, the milk collected at the day of weaning yielded non- as well as alpha- and beta-haemolytic streptococci. The beta-haemolytic streptococci turned out to be more frequently isolated from milk collected from clinically abnormal glands and teats. The limited number of secretion samples obtained and cultured 7 days after weaning yielded staphylococci and Actinomyces pyogenes, which indicated a bacterial flora known to cause infectious mastitis. A cytological comparison between milk from clinically normal and abnormal mammary glands and teats revealed almost significantly or significantly increased levels of TCC and PMNLs (12.17 vs. 17.76 x 10(6) cells/ml and 1.40 vs. 2.77 x 10(6) cells/ml). A comparison between levels of TCC and PMNLs in milk collected from the two clinical groups of sows, but where the bacteriological growth turned out to be negative, also revealed significant increases in the levels of the two cell parameters emanating from clinically abnormal glands and teats. The individual sow, but not herd or lactation, showed a significant influence on the variation of TCC.

Evaluation of low level laser therapy on primary healing of experimentally induced full thickness teat wounds in dairy cattle

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of low-level laser therapy (LLLT) on sutured wounds of the teat in dairy cattle.

STUDY DESIGN

By using the Latin square design, the effect of LLLT was evaluated by radiography, measurement of microcirculation flow, histopathology, tensiometry, and hydroxyproline analysis.

ANIMALS OR SAMPLE POPULATION

Sixteen teats of four dairy cattle.

METHODS

Full thickness wounds were made on the cranial surface of the teats. Teats were distributed into four groups; group A and B wounds were closed with a Gambee pattern, group C and D wounds were closed with three-layers of continuous suture pattern. Group B and D wounds were treated with 3.64 J/cm2 of LLLT using a helium-neon system continuous wave (632.8 nm) output of 8.5 nW.

RESULTS

The teat wall in non-LLLT groups was significantly thicker than in LLLT groups on day 7, 14 and 21. The mean blood flow differences between control and sutured sites in LLLT groups were significantly lower than those in non-LLLT groups. The morphology of the epidermis in LLLT groups more closely resembled the normal epidermis than that of non-LLLT groups. Collagen fibers in LLLT groups were denser, thicker, better arranged and more continuous with existing collagen fibers than those in non-LLLT groups. The mean tensile strength was significantly greater in LLLT groups than in non-LLLT groups.

CONCLUSION

The LLLT affects various aspects of the healing process, including minimizing inflammation, formation of edema, improvement of skin regeneration and enhancement of collagen synthesis.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The LLLT could accelerate healing of sutured wounds of the teat in dairy cattle.

Histopathological effect of low-level laser therapy on sutured wounds of the teat in dairy cattle

Perforating wounds were made on the cranial surface of 32 teats in eight dairy cattle. The teats were distributed into eight groups with four kinds of suture patterns. The used suture patterns were Gambee in Groups A and E, continuous 2-layer (Cushing for submucosal layer, continuous horizontal mattress for intermediate layer and skin) in Groups B and F, separated 2-layer (simple continuous for mucosal layer, vertical mattress for intermediate layer and skin) in Groups C and G, and 3-layer (simple continuous for mucosal and intermediate layers, simple interrupted for skin) in Groups D and H. The wounds of Groups E, F, G and H were subjected to 3.64 J/cm2 dose of low-level laser, using a helium-neon system with an output of 8.5 mW, continuous wave at 632.8 nm. Histopathologically, healing was different between various suture patterns and between low level laser therapy (LLLT) and non-LLLT-groups. The results suggest that the 3-layer pattern was the best and LLLT could accelerate healing of perforating wounds of the teat in dairy cattle.

Effect of different suture patterns on wound healing of the teat in dairy cattle

Experimentally-induced perforating wounds in 4 Holstein Friesian lactating cows were sutured using Gambee, continuous 2-layer (Cushing for submucosal layer and continuous horizontal mattress for skin and intermediate layer), separated 2-layer (simple continuous for mucosal layer and vertical mattress for skin and intermediate layer) and 3-layer (simple continuous for mucosal and intermediate layers, simple interrupted for skin) suture patterns. Wound healing was evaluated by radiograph, blood flowmetry, tensiometry, measurement of hydroxyproline content and histopathology. The present results suggest that 3-layer pattern provided the best healing of the entire teat. Mucosal hyperplasia was observed in Gambee and continuous 2-layer pattern while eversion of the skin, presence of suture tracts and greater amount of granulation tissue were observed in continuous and separated 2-layer patterns.

A field study on group housing of lactating sows with special reference to sow health at weaning

Four farms that group-housed sows from 2 weeks of lactation until weaning (G-farms) and 3 farms that kept the sows individually penned throughout the 5 to 6-week-long lactation period (C-farms), were compared in terms of sow health. All sows were crossbred Swedish Yorkshire x Swedish Landrace. The daily food ration was similar on all farms except during the group-housing period, when G-farm sows were fed ad libitum. Sows were grouped in the breeding section and kept grouped on deep litter in the dry sow section on all farms. Individual health examinations were performed at the time of weaning (+/- 4 days) on 179 G-farm sows and on 167 C-farm sows. Teat- and udder skin wounds occurred less frequently (p < 0.001) in G-farm sows than in C-farm sows. In addition, preweaning atrophy of all mammary glands occurred in 6.6% of the G-farm-sows but not in a single C-farm sow (p < 0.001). This indicates that sow-piglet interactions decrease when sows are group housed. However, these differences did not occur in primiparous sows, suggesting that the relation between the primiparous sow and her litter is not affected. Mastitis frequency was the same in the 2 systems. Moreover, the frequency of locomotor disorders was the same in the 2 groups, and hoof overgrowth was common in both systems. These similarities could be due to the fact that all farms group housed dry sows on deep litter. A strong relation (p < 0.001) between hoof overgrowth and locomotor disorders was evident. Low access to food due to low rank among primiparous group-housed sows was indicated by a lower (p < 0.05) backfat thickness compared with multiparous sows, and a higher (p < 0.001) frequency of skin wounds compared with individually housed primiparous sows.

[Teat amputation in cattle--indications, surgical results and economy]

Based on the experience gained after the performance of 204 teat amputations with complete closure of the wound, medical as well as economic aspects were discussed. Various types of severe teat injuries leading to a teat amputation were listed. Surgery was successful in 94.6% of all animals subjected to the teat amputation. Approximately 50% of the animals had a reproductive life span after surgery of more than one year. The most common reasons for culling were inconvenience at milking and insufficient milk yield. The milk yield during a lactation period dropped by an average of 5.5%. Cost efficiency of the procedure was evaluated by partial budgeting. The result of this analysis suggested that in most cases, from the economic standpoint of view, there might be an indication for teat amputation.

Effect of abrasion of teat orifice epithelium on development of bovine staphylococcal mastitis

The predisposing effect of teat damage on mastitis caused by staphylococci and the pathogenicity of Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus hyicus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis were investigated with an experimental model. The study included three experiments in which the teat canal orifice of 5 cows was slightly abraded. Experimental and control quarters were challenged with a staphylococcal suspension, and the status of the quarters was monitored. Virulence of the staphylococcal strains was studied using a protein-binding test with 125I-labeled proteins (fibronectin, fibrinogen, vitronectin, collagen type I and II, and IgG). Abrasion on the teat orifice epithelium was a predisposing factor for staphylococcal infections. Teat canal infection or colonization developed in 93% of experimental quarters and in 53% of control quarters; IMI developed in 73% of experimental quarters, but in none of the control quarters. Quarter IMI developed more consistently when the contaminating agent was S. aureus. Staphylococcus hyicus was very effective in causing teat canal infections, but S. epidermidis appeared to be less infectious. The S. aureus strain had strong binding sites for most of the proteins tested. The S. hyicus and S. epidermidis strains showed no binding, or only very weak binding, which correlated with lower infection rates.

[Effects of different methods of tooth resection in suckling piglets]

Epizootic examinations were made on 796 newborn piglets to test the consequences of the resection of a piglet's canine and lateral incisor teeth on its first day of life. As a comparative examination the resection was carried out with side-cutter pliers or with the teeth grinder PIGMATIC 110. A third group of piglets was not treated. Histological, radiographic and bacteriological examinations were made of 10 piglets--in each case with piglets with the resection with side-cutter pliers or with the teeth grinder. 48% of ground teeth reacted with an inflammation of the pulp. The clipping of the crown of teeth with side-cutter pliers caused pulpitis in 92% of the teeth. Inflammation of the gingiva could almost only be seen around clipped teeth. Splinters only occurred with teeth which had been clipped with side-cutter pliers. Gingivitis and pulpitis extended along the splinters to the bottom of the root. Bites among the litter mates were more frequent in the group of piglets whose teeth had not been treated than in the group of piglets with resected teeth. Compared to the grinding or the clipping of needle teeth, bites to the sow's udder were much more frequent if the resection had been omitted. During the whole period of examination the mortality of piglets was at its lowest in the group of piglets with clipped teeth. The development of grinding instruments for the resection of needle teeth presents a method which reduces the negative consequences of the conventional resection with side-cutter pliers and shows clearly the advantages of resection. In terms of animal welfare, teeth resection is an amputation and therefore every case requires veterinary justification.

[The effect of environmental factors on the occurrence of udder diseases]

The influence of housing factors on udder diseases was investigated in 2156 tiestall barns with 41893 cows and in 98 loose housed herds with 4126 cows. In loose housed herds less teat injuries were observed and also less mastitis than in tiestall barns. Within the different tiestall systems there was a trend to more udder diseases in short standings with a dung grid than in other systems. The ordinary neck chain and the "Grabner"-tethering system showed better results than the horizontal chain and the yoke tying system. Stall partitions between the cows caused a marked reduction of udder diseases. The installation of a cow trainer showed advantages regarding udder diseases. Inaccurate standing measurements (length and width) caused more udder diseases. When the metal grid was in poor condition, the incidence of teat injuries as well as udder diseases of heifers increased. Teat injuries and udder infections were more frequent when limb or digit injuries were found. Regular hoof care twice a year reduced the udder disease rate. Bedding material influenced the incidence of udder diseases positively. On farms where the cows were on pasture, the incidence of udder infections was higher than on farms where the cows were permanently housed. Heifers that were tied as calves or as juveniles showed significantly less udder diseases than those that were raised in groups. Faults in milking, defects in milking machines and deficits in milking hygiene showed a negative effect on udder diseases.

Effect of tissue adhesives and suture patterns on experimentally induced teat lacerations in lactating dairy cattle

Tissue adhesives and suture materials were evaluated for repair of experimentally induced teat lacerations in 6 lactating dairy cows. Group-1 teat lacerations were not closed and served as nonsutured controls. Group-2 lacerations were closed in three layers (mucosa, submucosa, and skin) by use of 3-0 polydioxanone. Group-3 lacerations were closed by use of N-butyl cyanoacrylate monomer tissue adhesive. Group-4 lacerations were closed by use of a combination of sutures and tissue adhesive. All cows were milked by machine. Healing was observed for 28 days, then cows were slaughtered, and teats were recovered for further study. Evaluation revealed failure of healing of all layers with formation of large fistulas in 3 of 4 nonsutured control teats in group 1. All 6 teat lacerations in groups 2 and 3 healed satisfactorily with no fistulas. Five of 6 teats in group 4 had partial healing of skin and mucosa with no fistulas, and 1 teat failed to heal and developed a small fistula. Data indicated that closure of experimentally induced teat lacerations with three layers of fine absorbable suture or closure with tissue adhesive alone gave good results and satisfactory healing of all layers. However, when sutures and tissue adhesive were used together, foreign body reaction was marked, and the skin and submucosa healed only partially. Sutures appeared to entrap the tissue adhesive, resulting in a foreign body reaction.

Isolation of Staphylococcus aureus from sites other than the lactating mammary gland

The body sites of 163 heifers, bedding and feedstuff samples, flies, and hands and nares of the research personnel were sampled in order to determine the sources of Staphylococcus aureus in a dairy herd other than the lactating mammary gland. Lesions on the udder of lactating animals and the air in the milking parlor were also sampled. Staphylococci isolated from bedding samples were identified as to species. Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from all sources examined except flies. An enrichment procedure was necessary for isolating S. aureus from two bedding samples although other Staphylococcus species were present in high numbers. The designation "environmental staphylococci" is proposed for Staphylococcus species that were apparently free-living in the environment.

[Effects of partial drying of an udder quarter in cows with teat injuries]

In cows with teat lesions, partial drying-off of the affected mammary quarter is recommended for a period of 3 to 10 days. The other three quarters are normally milked. Partial drying-off reduces the risks of complications due to the daily milking. The slight reduction of milk production, connected with the temporary drying-off a single quarter, is nearly compensated within 4 weeks.

Use of mucosal grafts and temporary tube implants for treatment of teat sinus mucosal injuries

A mucosal lesion was created in the center of each test sinus of 6 mature, healthy, nonlactating Holstein cows by resecting a circumferential band of mucosa. Each lesion was then treated by implantation of strip grafts of autogenous oral mucosa, temporary silastic tube implant, or a combination of strip grafts and temporary silastic tube implant. All teats were evaluated for patency 6 weeks after treatment, and tube implants were removed through a second thelotomy incision. All teats were reevaluated for gross and radiographic patency 12 weeks after treatment, and teats were collected for histologic evaluation of lesions. All 4 teats treated with grafts only were obstructed at 6 and 12 weeks after treatment. Incomplete coverage of the lesion with mucosa was observed in all 4 teats. The major source of obstruction was proliferation of epithelium and keratin into the lumen. All 8 teats treated with temporary silastic tube implants alone were patent at 6 weeks after treatment, but were obstructed at 12 weeks after treatment. Foci of mucosa at the lesion site were detected in only 2 of the 8 teats. Obstruction resulted from proliferation of granulation tissue into the lumen. All 12 teats treated with grafts and a temporary tube implant were patent at 6 weeks after treatment and 11 of 12 were patent at 12 weeks after treatment, although marked luminal narrowing was evident in 9 of 11 teats. Partial to complete coverage of the lesion with mucosa was seen in all teats. Proliferative granulation tissue, epithelium, and keratin contributed to luminal narrowing in 10 of 11 patent teats. Bacteriologic culture of quarters from 6 of the 11 teats patent at the final evaluation yielded pathogens.

Tramped teats--clinical mastitis disease complex in tied cows. Environmental risk factors and interrelationships with other diseases

The effects of stall length, manure system, type of bedding and calving disorders on incidence rates of tramped teats, udder injuries, and clinical mastitis in Swedish Red and White tied cows, as well as interrelationships between these 3 disorders were investigated. Data used consisted of 370 herds, for a total of 45,133 cow records. Cows in herds with liquid manure system were at higher risk of udder injuries and mastitis than in herds with solid system. Lower risk of both udder injuries and mastitis was found for cows in herds with short stall size (less than 180 cm) compared to herds with stalls of 205-219 cm length. It was suggested that other factors, such as slipperiness of the stall floor and presence and type of feeding barrier, must be considered when the effect of stall characteristics on tramped teats is investigated. In farms with solid manure system cut straw or sawdust bedding increased the risk of tramped teats and mastitis relative to uncut straw. Parity and calving disorders were important risk factors for udder health and their effect was greater in herds with liquid manure system. Tramped teats and udder injuries were the most serious risk factors for clinical mastitis.

[A randomized field study of therapy of non-perforating injury of the udder]

Treatment of a lesion of the teats not associated with perforation of the teat canal or teat cistern is discussed in the present paper. Treatment of the lesion of the teats using a Bykanula is compared with temporary drying off of the involved quarter. In eleven out of the twenty cases reported, the process of healing was complicated by mastitis in the involved quarter. When the outlet of the teat was involved in the lesion, this complication was likely to be 5.4 times larger than it was when the teat opening was not involved. In the 'temporary drying-off group', the complicating mastitis was a reason for culling the animal within six months after treatment had been initiated in five out of nine cases. On the other hand treatment of the complicating mastitis in the 'Bykanula-group' was successful in every case. Problems in carrying out this clinical trial are also discussed.

Teat burns in dairy cattle--the prognosis and effect of treatment

Twenty cows and 20 uncalved 20 month old heifers with severely burnt teats were studied. Ten of each group received topical treatment with a mixture of lanoline, cetrimide and dimethyl sulphoxide or vitamin A and petroleum jelly, respectively. Prognosis for survival and future normal milking ability was poor in heifers (8 subsequently normal of 20 assessed) but moderate in cows (9 cows with normal and 5 cows with partial machine milking ability of 18 cows fully assessed). Treatment did not significantly increase the rate of epithelialisation of wounds. Topical treatment had no effect on the prognosis of heifers. However treated cows were more likely than control cows to survive and to show adequate teat function following subsequent calving. Severe clinical mastitis prior to calving, teat distortion and teat canal constriction were common sequelae. Recommendations on the management of heifers and cows with severely burnt teats are made.