Comparative analysis of transcription factor gene families from Papaver somniferum: identification of regulatory factors involved in benzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis

Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.), known for biosynthesis of several therapeutically important benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs), has emerged as the premier organism to study plant alkaloid metabolism. The most prominent molecules produced in opium poppy include narcotic analgesic morphine, the cough suppressant codeine, the muscle relaxant papaverine and the anti-microbial agent sanguinarine and berberine. Despite several health benefits, biosynthesis of some of these molecules is very low due to tight temporal and spatial regulation of the genes committed to their biosynthesis. Transcription factors, one of the prime regulators of secondary plant product biosynthesis, might be involved in controlled biosynthesis of BIAs in P. somniferum. In this study, identification of members of different transcription factor gene families using transcriptome datasets of 10 cultivars of P. somniferum with distinct chemoprofile has been carried out. Analysis suggests that most represented transcription factor gene family in all the poppy cultivars is WRKY. Comparative transcriptome analysis revealed differential expression pattern of the members of a set of transcription factor gene families among 10 cultivars. Through analysis, two members of WRKY and one member of C3H gene family were identified as potential candidates which might regulate thebaine and papaverine biosynthesis, respectively, in poppy.

Comparative transcriptome analysis using high papaverine mutant of Papaver somniferum reveals pathway and uncharacterized steps of papaverine biosynthesis

The benzylisoquinoline alkaloid papaverine, synthesized in low amount in most of the opium poppy varieties of Papaver somniferum, is used as a vasodilator muscle relaxant and antispasmodic. Papaverine biosynthesis remains controversial as two different routes utilizing either (S)-coclaurine or (S)-reticuline have been proposed with uncharacterized intermediate steps. In an attempt to elucidate papaverine biosynthesis and identify putative genes involved in uncharacterized steps, we carried out comparative transcriptome analysis of high papaverine mutant (pap1) and normal cultivar (BR086) of P. somniferum. This natural mutant synthesizes more than 12-fold papaverine in comparison to BR086. We established more than 238 Mb transcriptome data separately for pap1 and BR086. Assembly of reads generated 127,342 and 106,128 unigenes in pap1 and BR086, respectively. Digital gene expression analysis of transcriptomes revealed 3,336 differentially expressing unigenes. Enhanced expression of (S)-norcoclaurine-6-O-methyltransferase (6OMT), (S)-3′-hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine 4′-O-methyltransferase (4′OMT), norreticuline 7-O-methyltransferase (N7OMT) and down-regulation of reticuline 7-O-methyltransferase (7OMT) in pap1 in comparison to BR086 suggest (S)-coclaurine as the route for papaverine biosynthesis. We also identified several methyltransferases and dehydrogenases with enhanced expression in pap1 in comparison to BR086. Our analysis using natural mutant, pap1, concludes that (S)-coclaurine is the branch-point intermediate and preferred route for papaverine biosynthesis. Differentially expressing methyltransferases and dehydrogenases identified in this study will help in elucidating complete biosynthetic pathway of papaverine. The information generated will be helpful in developing strategies for enhanced biosynthesis of papaverine through biotechnological approaches.

On the biosynthetic pathway of papaverine via (S)-reticuline theoretical vs. experimental study

The electronic structures, optical properties and molecular structures of a series of isoquinoline alkaloids resulting in the formation of papaverine, through a proposed biosynthetic pathway via S(+)-reticuline were elucidated. The mechanism of papaverine synthesis was studied by electronic absorption, diffuse reflectance, fluorescence and CD spectroscopy, as well as ESI and MALDI Orbitrap imaging mass spectrometry. Quantum chemical DFT calculations in the gas phase and solution were performed with a view to study the electronic transitions of the interacting species, corresponding proposed intermediates, and the expected mass spectrometric fragments. The complete study and understanding of the mechanism of the biosynthetic pathway in the poppy plants appears important for the functional oriented drug-design and synthesis of corresponding structurally related alkaloids.

The biosynthesis of papaverine proceeds via (S)-reticuline

Papaverine is one of the earliest opium alkaloids for which a biosynthetic hypothesis was developed on theoretical grounds. Norlaudanosoline (=tetrahydropapaveroline) was claimed as the immediate precursor alkaloid for a multitude of nitrogen containing plant metabolites. This tetrahydroxylated compound was proposed to be fully O-methylated. The resulting tetrahydropapaverine should then aromatize to papaverine. In view of experimental data, this pathway has to be revised. Precursor administration to 8-day-old seedlings of Papaver followed by direct examination of the metabolic fate of the stable-isotope-labeled precursors in the total plant extract, without further purification of the metabolites, led to elucidation of the papaverine pathway in vivo. The central and earliest benzylisoquinoline alkaloid is not the tetraoxygenated norlaudanosoline, but instead the trihydroxylated norcoclaurine that is further converted into (S)-reticuline, the established precursor for poppy alkaloids. The papaverine pathway is opened by the methylation of (S)-reticuline to generate (S)-laudanine. A second methylation at the 3' position of laudanine leads to laudanosine, both known alkaloids from the opium poppy. Subsequent N-demethylation of laudanosine yields the known precursor of papaverine: tetrahydropapaverine. Inspection of the subsequent aromatization reaction established the presence of an intermediate, 1,2-dihydropapaverine, which has been characterized. The final step to papaverine is dehydrogenation of the 1,2-bond, yielding the target compound papaverine. We conclusively show herein that the previously claimed norreticuline does not play a role in the biosynthesis of papaverine.

Functional characterization of a novel benzylisoquinoline O-methyltransferase suggests its involvement in papaverine biosynthesis in opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L)

The benzylisoquinoline alkaloids are a highly diverse group of about 2500 compounds which accumulate in a species-specific manner. Despite the numerous compounds which could be identified, the biosynthetic pathways and the participating enzymes or cDNAs could be characterized only for a few selected members, whereas the biosynthesis of the majority of the compounds is still largely unknown. In an attempt to characterize additional biosynthetic steps at the molecular level, integration of alkaloid and transcript profiling across Papaver species was performed. This analysis showed high expression of an expressed sequence tag (EST) of unknown function only in Papaver somniferum varieties. After full-length cloning of the open reading frame and sequence analysis, this EST could be classified as a member of the class II type O-methyltransferase protein family. It was related to O-methyltransferases from benzylisoquinoline biosynthesis, and the amino acid sequence showed 68% identical residues to norcoclaurine 6-O-methyltransferase. However, rather than methylating norcoclaurine, the recombinant protein methylated norreticuline at position seven with a K(m) of 44 mum using S-adenosyl-l-methionine as a cofactor. Of all substrates tested, only norreticuline was converted. Even minor changes in the benzylisoquinoline backbone were not tolerated by the enzyme. Accordingly, the enzyme was named norreticuline 7-O-methyltransferase (N7OMT). This enzyme represents a novel O-methyltransferase in benzylisoquinoline metabolism. Expression analysis showed slightly increased expression of N7OMT in P. somniferum varieties containing papaverine, suggesting its involvement in the partially unknown biosynthesis of this pharmaceutically important compound.

Biosynthesis of unnatural papaverine derivatives in Papaver somniferum

The unnatural thebaine analog, oripavine 3-ethyl ether, was efficiently metabolized to morphine 3-ethyl ether and morphine in the opium poppy. An attempt to detect oripavine hy an isotope dilution experiment based on its presumed biosynthesis from reticuline was unsuccessful.