Photobiomodulation therapy for osteoarthritis: Mechanisms of action

Photobiomodulation (PBM) is a non-invasive therapeutic modality with demonstrated effects in many fields related to regenerative medicine. In the field of orthopedics, in particular, PBM at various wavelengths has demonstrated the capacity to trigger multiple biological effects associated with protective mechanisms in musculoskeletal tissues. The articles cited in this review show that devices operating close to or within the near infrared range at low intensities can provoke responses which favor the shift in the predominant catabolic microenvironment typically seen in degenerative joint diseases, especially osteoarthritis (OA). These responses include proliferation, differentiation and expression of proteins associated with stable cell cycles. Additionally, PBM can also modulate oxidative stress, inflammation and pain by exerting regulatory effects on immune cells and blocking the transmission of pain through sensory neuron fibers, without adverse events. Collectively, these effects are essential in order to control the progression of OA, which is in part attributed to exacerbated inflammation and degradative enzymatic reactions which gradually contribute to the destruction of joint tissues. PBM may offer medical experts ease of application, financial viability, efficacy and lack of serious adverse events. Therefore, it may prove to be a suitable ally in the management of mild to moderate degrees of OA. This review explores and discusses the principal biological mechanisms of PBM and how the produced effects may contribute to the amelioration of osteoarthritic progression. Literature was reviewed using PubMed and Google Scholar in order to find studies describing the mechanisms of PBM. The investigation included a combination of nomenclature such as: “photobiomodulation”, “phototherapy”, “laser therapy”, “PBM”, “osteoarthritis”, low level light therapy”, “inflammation” and “cartilage”. We considered only articles written in English, with access to the full text.

Cell-free mitochondrial DNA quantification in ischemic stroke patients for non-invasive and real-time monitoring of disease status

BACKGROUND

Acute ischemic stroke (AIS) is one of the major causes of the continuous increasing rate of global mortality due to the lack of timely diagnosis, prognosis, and management. This study provides a primitive platform for non-invasive and cost-effective diagnosis and prognosis of patients with AIS using circulating cell-free mitochondrial DNA (cf-mtDNA) quantification and validation.

AIM

To evaluate the role of cf-mtDNA as s non-invasive, and affordable tool for real-time monitoring and prognosticating AIS patients at disease onset and during treatment.

METHODS

This study enrolled 88 participants including 44 patients with AIS and 44 healthy controls with almost similar mean age group at stroke onset, and at 24 h and 72 h of treatment. Peripheral blood samples were collected from each study participant and plasma was separated using centrifugation. The cf-mtDNA concentration was quantified using nanodrop reading and validated through real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) of NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase chain 1 (ND1) relative transcript expression levels.

RESULTS

Comparative analysis of cf-mtDNA concentration in patients at disease onset showed significantly increased levels compared to control individuals for both nanodrop reading, as well as ND1 relative expression levels (P < 0.0001). Intergroup analysis of cf-mtDNA concentration using nanodrop showed significantly reduced levels in patients at 72 h of treatment compared to onset (P < 0.01). However, RT-qPCR analysis showed a significant reduction at 24 h and 72 h of treatment compared to the disease onset (P < 0.001). The sensitivity and specificity were relatively higher for RT-qPCR than nanodrop-based cf-mtDNA quantification. Correlation analysis of both cf-mtDNA concentration as well as ND1 relative expression with National Institute of Health Stroke Scale score at baseline showed a positive trend.

CONCLUSION

In summary, quantitative estimation of highly pure cf-mtDNA provides a simple, highly sensitive and specific, non-invasive, and affordable approach for real-time monitoring and prognosticating AIS patients at onset and during treatment.

Current progress and emerging technologies for generating extrapancreatic functional insulin-producing cells

Diabetes has been one of the major concerns in recent years, due to the increasing rate of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The available treatment strategies for uncontrolled diabetes mellitus (DM) are pancreas or islet transplantation. However, these strategies are limited due to unavailability of quality pancreas/ islet donors, life-long need of immunosuppression, and associated complications. Cell therapy has emerged as a promising alternative options to achieve the clinical benefits in the management of uncontrolled DM. Since the last few years, various sources of cells have been used to convert into insulin-producing β-like cells. These extrapancreatic sources of cells may play a significant role in β-cell turnover and insulin secretion in response to environmental stimuli. Stem/progenitor cells from liver have been proposed as an alternative choice that respond well to glucose stimuli under strong transcriptional control. The liver is one of the largest organs in the human body and has a common endodermal origin with pancreatic lineages. Hence, liver has been proposed as a source of a large number of insulin-producing cells. The merging of nanotechnology and 3D tissue bioengineering has opened a new direction for producing islet-like cells suitable for in vivo transplantation in a cordial microenvironment. This review summarizes extrapancreatic sources for insulin-secreting cells with reference to emerging technologies to fulfill the future clinical need.

Machine intelligence for precision oncology

Despite various advances in cancer research, the incidence and mortality rates of malignant diseases have remained high. Accurate risk assessment, prevention, detection, and treatment of cancer tailored to the individual are major challenges in clinical oncology. Artificial intelligence (AI), a field of applied computer science, has shown promising potential of accelerating evolution of healthcare towards precision oncology. This article focuses on highlights of the application of data-driven machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) in translational research for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, treatment, and clinical outcomes. ML-based algorithms in radiological and histological images have been demonstrated to improve detection and diagnosis of cancer. DL-based prediction models in molecular or multi-omics datasets of cancer for biomarkers and targets enable drug discovery and treatment. ML approaches combining radiomics with genomics and other omics data enhance the power of AI in improving diagnosis, prognostication, and treatment of cancer. Ethical and regulatory issues involving patient confidentiality and data security impose certain limitations on practical implementation of ML in clinical oncology. However, the ultimate goal of application of AI in cancer research is to develop and implement multi-modal machine intelligence for improving clinical decision on individualized management of patients.

Inflammation and cardiovascular disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) has been associated with the so-called traditional risk factors, such as hypertension, hypercholesterolemia and cigarette smoking. Chronic inflammation, exemplified by elevated high sensitivity C-reactive protein, has been added to these risk factors for CVD as non-traditional risk factor. There are two aspects in this association. The first is whether inflammation plays a pathogenic role in traditional risk factors-mediated CVD or it is just an epiphenomenon. The second is whether chronic inflammation caused by an inflammatory disease has any impact on CVD. Accumulated data have shown that inflammation has a central and inciting role in the development of atherosclerosis leading to increased CVD risk. How inflammation contributes to CVD is a topic of continuous research where mechanisms involving both innate and adaptive immune pathways are involved. Endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress in vascular endothelial cells, macrophage accumulation, formation of inflammasome, production of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a, IL-1 and IL-6 characterize the inflammatory process leading to atherogenesis. Recently clonal hematopoiesis of indeterminate potential represents a surprising and novel mechanism underlying atherogenesis. Data from chronic rheumatic inflammatory diseases exemplify the complexity of mechanisms leading to increased CVD, while they also provide evidence that anti-inflammatory biologic drugs, such as anti-TNF and anti-IL6 agents, could control atherogenesis and ameliorate CVD risk. Recent groundbreaking work using biologic anti-IL-1b therapy to treat men and women who have had a prior heart attack provides the best proof of the pathogenic contribution of inflammation in the development of CVD.

More than boric acid: Increasing relevance of boron in medicine

Although boron has been a chemical element of interest since the ancient times, only a few boron-containing compounds (BCCs) had been used for medicinal purposes before the 21^st century. Among these, only boric acid has been explored in multiple therapeutic applications. Hence, it is common to extrapolate from boric acid to all BCCs, supposing a similar biological effect. However, boric acid is just one of dozens of BCCs in nature and thousands available from chemical synthesis. Nowadays, there is a boom in research on new BCCs as potential tools in the prevention, diagnosis and therapy of human disease. We herein discuss the new role of BCCs in drug development, with emphasis on the compounds for which a mechanism of action has been proposed or demonstrated. Because of data gathered in recent years, BCCs have expanded beyond the well-known fields of antimicrobial and antineoplastic agents, now being explored for their possible use as enzyme inhibitors, regulators of protein expression and modulators of the immune response, as well as in biomaterials. We suggest that translational medicine can accelerate the medicinal applications of BCCs, which is especially important for the human diseases that are generating a high global burden.

Scope of translational medicine in developing boron-containing compounds for therapeutics

The ubiquitousness of naturally occurring boron-containing compounds (BCCs) has led to their constant contact with humankind. Recently, many synthetic BCCs have been elaborated for a broad spectrum of purposes, especially boric, boronic and borinic acids. Although BCCs were once employed primarily as antiseptics and later as antibiotics, they have become an increasingly relevant therapeutic tool. Nevertheless, this potential of BCCs has been drastically limited due to some unfortunate intra-hospital accidents in the 1940s and 1950s. The increasing use of BCCs as insecticides, antimicrobials, and other agents is providing new insights into their role in the physiology of several living species and in the pathophysiology of humans. It is becoming clear that BCCs act through a wide range of mechanisms, as do their corresponding boron-free counterparts. When comparing BCCs and similar boron-free compounds, in many cases the former show advantages in the medical field. The current mini-review focuses on how BCCs have been developed by means of translational medicine, a process connecting biomedical research with clinical applications. This process of discovery is currently in an exponential stage.

Sphingolipid metabolism affects the anticancer effect of cisplatin

Cisplatin, a DNA crosslinking agent, is widely used for the treatment of a variety of solid tumors. Numerous studies have demonstrated that sphingolipid metabolism, which acts as a target for cisplatin treatment, is a highly complex network that consists of sphingolipid signaling molecules and related catalytic enzymes. Ceramide (Cer), which is the central molecule of this network, has been established to induce apoptosis. However, another molecule, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), exerts the opposite function, i.e., serves as a regulator of pro-survival. Other sphingolipid molecules, including dihydroceramide, ceramide-1-phosphate, glucosylceramide (GluCer), and sphingosine (Sph), or sphingolipid catalytic enzymes such as Sph kinase (SphK), Cer synthase (CerS), and S1P lyase, have also attracted considerable attention, particularly Cer, GluCer, SphK, CerS, and S1P lyase, which have been implicated in cisplatin resistance. This review summarizes specific molecules involved in sphingolipid metabolism and related catalytic enzymes affecting the anticancer effect of cisplatin, particularly in relation to induction of apoptosis and drug resistance.

Potential therapeutic targets from genetic and epigenetic approaches for asthma

Asthma is a complex disorder characterised by inflammation of airway and symptoms of wheeze and shortness of breath. Allergic asthma, atopic dermatitis and allergic rhinitis are immunoglobulin E (IgE) related diseases. Current therapies targeting asthma rely on non-specific medication to control airway inflammation and prevent symptoms. Severe asthma remains difficult to treat. Genetic and genomic approaches of asthma and IgE identified many novel loci underling the disease pathophysiology. Recent epigenetic approaches also revealed the insights of DNA methylation and chromatin modification on histones in asthma and IgE. More than 30 microRNAs have been identified to have regulating roles in asthma. Understanding the pathways of the novel genetic loci and epigenetic elements in asthma and IgE will provide new therapeutic means for clinical management of the disease in future.

Gene editing for corneal disease management

Gene editing has recently emerged as a promising technology to engineer genetic modifications precisely in the genome to achieve long-term relief from corneal disorders. Recent advances in the molecular biology leading to the development of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPRs) and CRISPR-associated systems, zinc finger nucleases and transcription activator like effector nucleases have ushered in a new era for high throughput in vitro and in vivo genome engineering. Genome editing can be successfully used to decipher complex molecular mechanisms underlying disease pathophysiology, develop innovative next generation gene therapy, stem cell-based regenerative therapy, and personalized medicine for corneal and other ocular diseases. In this review we describe latest developments in the field of genome editing, current challenges, and future prospects for the development of personalized gene-based medicine for corneal diseases. The gene editing approach is expected to revolutionize current diagnostic and treatment practices for curing blindness.

Prednisolone inhibits SaOS2 osteosarcoma cell proliferation by activating inducible nitric oxide synthase

AIM: To investigate the effect of prednisolone, a synthetic glucocorticoid used in inflammatory diseases, on the growth of cultured osteosarcoma cells.

METHODS: Two osteosarcoma cell lines with different degree of differentiation were used. SaOS2 show a rather mature phenotype, while U2OS are negative for almost all osteoblastic markers. The cells were exposed to different concentrations of prednisolone (1-9 μmol/L) with or without antioxidants or the inhibitor of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) l-N⁶-(iminoethyl)-lysine-HCl (L-NIL). Cell growth was assessed by counting viable cells. The production of nitric oxide (NO) was measured in the conditioned media by the Griess method. The production of reactive oxygen species was quantified using 2’-7’-dichlorofluorescein diacetate. Western blot with specific antibodies against NOSs was performed on cell extracts.

RESULTS: Prednisolone inhibited SaOS2 cell growth in a dose dependent manner. No significant effects were observed in U2OS. The inhibition of SaOS2 growth is not due to oxidative stress, because antioxidants do not rescue cell proliferation. Since high concentrations of NO inhibit bone formation, we also measured NO and found it induced in SaOS2, but not in U2OS, exposed to prednisolone, because of the upregulation of iNOS as detected by western blot. Therefore, we treated SaOS2 with prednisolone in the presence or in the absence of L-NIL. L-NIL prevented NO release induced by prednisolone at all the concentrations apart from 9 μmol/L. At the same concentrations, we found that L-NIL rescued SaOS2 growth after exposure to prednisolone. In U2OS cells, prednisolone did not induce NO production nor affected cell growth. All together, these data indicate that a link exists between increased amounts of NO and growth inhibition in response to prednisolone in SaOS2.

CONCLUSION: Prednisolone inhibited SaOS2 proliferation by increasing the release of NO through the upregulation of iNOS, while no effect was exerted on U2OS.

Naked DNA in cells: An inducer of major histocompatibility complex molecules to evoke autoimmune responses?

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is the exclusive chaperone that presents intracellular antigens, either self or foreign to T cells. Interestingly, aberrant expression of MHC molecules has been reported in various autoimmune target tissues such as thyroid follicular cells in Grave’s disease. Herein, we review the discovery of an unexpected effect of cytosolic double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), despite its origins, to induce antigen processing and presenting genes, including MHC molecules, in non-immune cells. Moreover, we highlight several recent studies that suggest cell injury endows thyroid epithelial cells with a phenotype of mature antigen presenting cells by inducing multiple antigen processing and presenting genes via releasing genomic DNA fragments into the cytosol. We discuss the possibility that such cytosolic dsDNA, in naked form without binding to histone proteins, might be involved in the development of cell damage-triggered autoimmune responses. We also discuss the possible molecular mechanism by which cytosolic dsDNA can induce MHC molecules. It is reasonable to speculate that cytosolic dsDNA-induced MHC class I is partially due to an autocrine/paracrine effect of type I interferon (IFN). While the mechanism of cytosolic dsDNA-induced MHC class II expression appears, at least partially, distinct from that mediated by IFN-γ. Further in-depth are required to clarify this picture.

New insights in sperm biology: How benchside results in the search for molecular markers may help understand male infertility

The male factor is responsible for about 40% of couple infertility cases and such percentage is expected to increase in the future because of several likely factors including the presence of endocrine disruptors in the environment, changes in lifestyle habits and advanced couple aging. How such factors affect male fertility status, however, should be clarified. Most studies on male fertility status have focused on parameters analyzed using a spermiogram test, the primary diagnostic tool in the routine assessment of male infertility, which is, however, poorly predictive of both natural and medically assisted conception. For these reasons it is mandatory for the scientific community to identify new molecular markers to incorporate into the existing diagnostic tests of male fertility. Ideally, such markers would be detected in mature spermatozoa to avoid invasive procedures for the patient. This review summarizes the recent advancements in benchside approaches that appear most promising for the development of new diagnostic sperm fertility tests, or identification of therapeutic targets, and, illustrates their advantages and limits.

Role of nestin in glioma invasion

AIM: To determine the role for the intermediate filament protein nestin in glioma invasion.

METHODS: We examined the expression and function of nestin in gliomas (Grades II-IV as defined by the World Health Organization). We determined nestin expression using Immunohistochemical methods. To elucidate nestin’s biological function(s), we reduced mRNA levels by 61% and 87% in two glioblastoma-derived neurosphere lines using short hairpin RNAs and determined the effect of reduced nestin expression on glioma cell proliferation and invasion using MTS and matrigel migration assays, respectively. We also utilized quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction assays to determine the effect of reduced nestin expression on the expression of other markers associated with glioma stem cells and their differentiated progenies.

RESULTS: We found a significant correlation between nestin immunoreactivity and astrocytoma tumor grade, with 36% of grade II, 75% of grade III, and 100% of grade IV tumors expressing significant levels of the protein when assessed using immunohistochemistry. Reduction in nestin expression had no effect on cell growth in culture, but did retard the capacity of one line to migrate in-vitro on matrigel. Interestingly, in the line whose migration was not affected, mRNA levels of a second intermediate filament, synemin (also knowns as desmuslin), were elevated following introduction of shRNA targeting nestin. As synemin was not induced in the line which required nestin for migration, it is a possibility that synemin may compensate for the loss of nestin in this process.

CONCLUSION: Nestin expression is prominent in high-grade astrocytomas. Nestin is not required for cell growth but it may, however, be required for cell motility.

Contributions of neutrophils to the adaptive immune response in autoimmune disease

Neutrophils are granulocytic cytotoxic leukocytes of the innate immune system that activate during acute inflammation. Neutrophils can also persist beyond the acute phase of inflammation to impact the adaptive immune response during chronic inflammation. In the context of the autoimmune disease, neutrophils modulating T and B cell functions by producing cytokines and chemokines, forming neutrophil extracellular traps, and acting as or priming antigen presentation cells. Thus, neutrophils are actively involved in chronic inflammation and tissue damage in autoimmune disease. Using rheumatoid arthritis as an example, this review focuses on functions of neutrophils in adaptive immunity and the therapeutic potential of these cells in the treatment of autoimmune disease and chronic inflammation.

Pro- vs anti-stenotic capacities of type-I vs type-II human induced pluripotent-derived endothelial cells

AIM: To verify in vivo relevance of the categorization of human vascular endothelial cells (VECs) into type-I (pro-proliferative) and type-II (anti-proliferative).

METHODS: Endothelial layers of murine femoral arteries were removed by wire injury (WI) operation, a common technique to induce arteriostenosis. Type-I and type-II VECs produced from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), whose characters were previously determined by their effects on the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells in in vitro co-culture experiments, were mixed with Matrigel^® Matrix. The mixtures were injected into subcutaneous spaces around WI-operated femoral arteries for the transplanted human iPSC-derived VECs (iPSdECs) to take a route to the luminal surface via vasa vasorum, a nutrient microvessel for larger arteries. Histologies of the femoral arteries were examined over time. The presence of human iPSdECs was checked by immunostaining studies using an antibody that specifically recognizes human VECs. Degrees of stenosis of the femoral arteries were calculated after three weeks. To determine the optimal experimental condition, xenotransplantation experiments were performed under various conditions using immunocompromised mice as well as immunocompetent mice with or without administration of immunosuppressants.

RESULTS: Because immunocompromised mice showed unexpected resistance to WI-induced arteriostenosis, we performed xenotransplantation experiments using immunocompetent mice along with immunosuppressant administrations. After one week, luminal surfaces of the WI-operated arteries were completely covered by human iPSdECs, showing the efficacy of our novel transplantation technique. After three weeks, type-I-iPSdECs-transplanted arteries underwent total stenosis, while type-II-iPSdECs-transplanted arteries remained intact. However, untransplanted arteries of immunosuppressant-treated mice also remained intact by unknown reasons. We found that transplanted human VECs had already been replaced by murine endothelial cells by this time, indicating that a transient existence of human type-II-iPSdECs on arterial luminal surfaces can sufficiently prevent the development of stenosis. Thus, we re-performed xenotransplantation experiments using immunocompetent mice without administrating immunosuppressants and found that arteriostenosis was accelerated or prevented by transplantation of type-I or type-II iPSdECs, respectively. Similar results were obtained from the experiments using human embryonic stem cell-derived VECs at early passages (i.e., type-II) and late passages (i.e., type-I).

CONCLUSION: Pro- and anti-stenosis capacities of type-I and type-II human iPSdECs were verified, respectively, promising a therapeutic application of allogenic iPSdECs.

p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase regulates type-I vs type-II phenotyping of human vascular endothelial cells

AIM: To identify kinases involved in phenotype regulation of vascular endothelial cells (VECs): Pro-proliferative G-protein signaling 5 (RGS5)^high (type-I) vs anti-proliferative RGS5^low (type-II) VECs.

METHODS: Proteomic kinase assays were performed to identify the crucial kinase involved in the phenotype regulation of human VECs using type-I VECs, which promotes the proliferation of human vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), and type-II VECs, which suppress the proliferation of human VSMCs. The assays were performed using multiple pairs of type-I and type-II VECs to obtain the least number of candidates. The involvement of the candidate kinases was verified by evaluating the effects of their specific inhibitors on the phenotype regulation of human VECs as well as the expression levels of regulator of RGS5, which is the causative gene for the “type-II to type-I” phenotype conversion of human VECs.

RESULTS: p38α mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38α MAPK) was the only kinase that showed distinctive activities between type-I and type-II VECs: p38α MAPK activities were low and high in type-I and type-II VECs, respectively. We found that an enforced expression of RGS5 indeed lowered p38α MAPK activities in type-II VECs. Furthermore, treatments with a p38α MAPK inhibitor nullified the anti-proliferative potential in type-II VECs. Interestingly, MAPK inhibitor treatments enhanced the induction of RGS5 gene. Thus, there is a vicious cycle between “RGS5 induction” and “p38α MAPK inhibition”, which can explain the unidirectional process in the stress-induced “type-II to type-I” conversions of human VECs. To understand the upstream signaling of RGS5, which is known as an inhibitory molecule against the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-mediated signaling, we examined the effects of RGS5 overexpression on the signaling events from sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) to N-cadherin, because S1P receptors belong to the GPCR family gene and N-cadherin, one of their downstream effectors, is reportedly involved in the regulation of VEC-VSMC interactions. We found that RGS5 specifically bound with S1P₁. Moreover, N-cadherin localization at intercellular junctions in type-II VECs was abolished by “RGS5 overexpression” and “p38α MAPK inhibition”.

CONCLUSION: p38α MAPK plays crucial roles in “type-I vs type-II” phenotype regulations of human VECs at the downstream of RGS5.

Targeting apoptosis is the major battle field for killing cancers

Targeting apoptosis is one of the major strategies for cancer therapy. Essentially, most of the conventional cancer therapeutic drugs that are in the clinical use induce apoptosis and in part necrosis of malignant cells and therefore prevent cancer progression and metastasis. Although these cytotoxic anticancer drugs are important weapons for killing cancers, their toxic side effects limited their application. The molecularly targeted therapeutics that are based on the deeper understanding of the defects in the apoptotic signaling in cancers are emerging and have shown promising anticancer activity in selectively killing cancers but not normal cells. The examples of molecular targets that are under exploration for cancer therapy include the cell surface receptors such as TNFR family death receptors, the intrinsic Bcl-2 family members and some other intracellular molecules like p53, MDM2, IAP, and Smac. The advance in the high-throughput bio-technologies has greatly accelerated the progress of cancer drug discovery.

New categorization of human vascular endothelial cells by pro- vs anti-proliferative phenotypes

AIM: To integrally understand the effects of human vascular endothelial cells (VECs) on the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs).

METHODS: Various kinds of human VECs of different origins were co-cultured with human aortic smooth muscle cells, a representative of human VSMCs. To exclude the irrelevant effects due to growth competition between VECs and VSMCs, the proliferation of VECs had previously been arrested via a low-dose gamma ray irradiation. To discriminately analyze the proliferation of VSMCs from that of VECs, the former cells were labeled with red fluorescent dye while the latter cells were labeled with green fluorescent dye before performing co-culture experiments. After 4 d, total cells were harvested and subjected to flow cytometric analyses. Decrements in red fluorescence intensities due to proliferation-mediated dilutions were measured and mathematically processed using a specific software to quantitatively evaluate the proliferation of VSMCs. The findings obtained from the flow cytometry-based analyses were further validated by microscopic observations.

RESULTS: Commercially available primary cultured human VECs exclusively promoted VSMC proliferation regardless of their tissue origins and we termed these pro-proliferative VECs as “type-I”. By contrast, VECs freshly generated from human bone marrow-derived endothelial progenitors cells or human pluripotent stem cells including embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells suppressed VSMC proliferation and we termed these anti-proliferative VECs as “type-II”. Repetitive subcultures as well as oxidative stress induced “type-II VECs to type-I” conversion along with an induction of Regulator of G-protein signaling 5 (RGS5). Compatibly, anti-oxidant treatments suppressed both the subculture-dependent “type-II to type-I” conversion and an induction of RGS5 gene. Immunostaining studies of clinical specimens indicated that RGS5 protein expressions in endothelial layers were low in normal arteries but they were up-regulated in pathological arteries including hypertension, atherosclerosis and autoimmune vasculitis in a dose-dependent manner. Overexpression and knockdown of RGS5 caused that “type-II to type-I” and “type-I to type-II” phenotype conversions of VECs, respectively.

CONCLUSION: Human VECs are categorized into two types: pro-proliferative RGS5^high VECs (type-I) and anti-proliferative RGS5^low VECs (type-II).

Nutritional determinants of anemia among adults in Eastern China

Historically, Eastern China has the highest prevalence of anemia among adults in China. It is commonly believed that iron deficiency is the main cause of anemia in China. Iron fortified soysauce is used to prevent anemia. Findings from Jiangsu Nutrition Study suggest that diet is related to anemia in this region. However, iron deficiency is not the main cause. Micronutrients other than iron (e.g., riboflavin) need to be considered in the prevention of anemia in the region.

Component-resolved allergen testing: The new frontier

The discovery that allergen specific IgE (sIgE) identified individuals who were allergic to specific allergens, revolutionized allergy and immunology. Recently, component-resolved allergen testing (CRD) has shown promise in improving the field yet again. Prior to development of CRD immunoassays, whole allergen extracts were used to detect IgE mediated allergic disease either by oral, cutaneous, or conjunctival provocation. The most widely used immunoassays detect sIgE to either whole allergen sources or individual allergic components. The use of CRD micro-assay technology (not Food and Drug Administration approved in the United States) has been used to evaluate multiple allergens in parallel. This technique allows for determination of primary vs secondary sensitizations from either close sequence homology or cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants. Published studies have shown beneficial uses in hymenoptera venom immunotherapy, anaphylaxis, and food allergy. The use of component testing for aeroallergen immunotherapy has been studied, however clinical use is hampered by lack of allergen components approved for injection. Therefore, although promising in many respects, the frontier of CRD testing requires more data before it can be widely used in clinical practice.

Translating laboratory anti-aging biotechnology into applied clinical practice: Problems and obstacles

Although the use of biomedical technologies against ageing (rejuvenation biotechnologies) is considered by many as an effective way of controlling all age-related degeneration, in reality this belief cannot be justified. The human body is notoriously resistant to external perturbations and can respond in unpredictable or undesirable ways. Basic concepts of science, evolution and disease must also be considered. In this paper, I discuss some relevant problems associated with the application of any putative rejuvenation biotechnologies such as stem cell therapies, genetic engineering, tissue manipulation, as well as pharmacological approaches. I conclude that these and other biotechnologies will not be applicable to humans in the community. This is due to a wide spectrum of problems and obstacles, such as unpredictable therapeutic results, unrealistic expectations, lack of infrastructure, cellular network disruption, and many more. Even if some such technologies are developed, the totality of the problems, issues and side effects will prove an insurmountable final hurdle, rendering the development of such therapies, essentially and practically useless.

Beyond the bedside: A review of translational medicine in global health

Translational research is a broad field of medicine with several key phases moving from scientific discovery to bench research and the hospital bedside, followed by evidence-based practice and population-level policy and programming. Understanding these phases is crucial when it comes to preventing and treating illness, especially in global health. Communities around the world struggle with a variety of health problems that are at some times similar and at others quite different. Three major world health issues help to outline the phases of translational research: vaccines, human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, and non-communicable diseases. Laboratory research has excelled in many of these areas and is struggling in a few. Where successful therapies have been discovered there are often problems with appropriate use or dissemination to groups in need. Also, many diseases would be better prevented from a population health approach. This review highlights successes and struggles in the arena of global health, from smallpox eradication to the impending epidemic of cardiovascular disease, in an attempt to illustrate of the various phases of translational research.

Therapeutic targets in gastrointestinal stromal tumors

Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are the most common type of mesenchymal tumor of the gastrointestinal tract. The tumorigenesis of GISTs is driven by gain-of-function mutations in KIT or platelet-derived growth factor receptor α (PDGFRA), resulting in constitutive activation of the tyrosine kinase and its downstream signaling pathways. Oncogenic KIT or PDGFRA mutations are compelling therapeutic targets for the treatment of GISTs, and the KIT/PDGFRA inhibitor imatinib is the standard of care for patients with metastatic GISTs. However, most GIST patients develop clinical resistance to imatinib and other tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Five mechanisms of resistance have been characterized: (1) acquisition of a secondary point mutation in KIT or PDGFRA; (2) genomic amplification of KIT; (3) activation of an alternative receptor tyrosine kinase; (4) loss of KIT oncoprotein expression; and (5) wild-type GIST. Currently, sunitinib is used as a second-line treatment for patients after imatinib failure, and regorafenib has been approved for patients whose disease is progressing on both imatinib and sunitinib. Phase II/III trials are currently in progress to evaluate novel inhibitors and immunotherapies targeting KIT, its downstream effectors such as phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, protein kinase B and mammalian target of rapamycin, heat shock protein 90, and histone deacetylase inhibitor. Other candidate targets have been identified, including ETV1, AXL, insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor, KRAS, FAS receptor, protein kinase c theta, ANO1 (DOG1), CDC37, and aurora kinase A. These candidates warrant clinical evaluation as novel therapeutic targets in GIST.

Modern advances in reducing anxiety and pain associated with cystoscopy: Systematic review

AIM: To investigate if music reduces anxiety and pain in the Veterans Affairs population undergoing flexible cystoscopy.

METHODS: This study was reviewed and approved by the University of California, San Diego Human Research Protections Program Institutional Review Board. Patients were prospectively randomized to undergo flexible cystoscopy with or without music. Thirty-eight patients were randomized into either the No Music group (n = 24) or the Music group (n = 14). We used the state-trait anxiety inventory and the visual analog pain scale, respectively. Statistics were generated and compared using an independent t-test and chi-squared tests. P values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Outpatient cystoscopy is a safe and useful procedure employed frequently in Urology for diagnosis and evaluation of genitourinary pathologies. However, cystoscopy-related distress cannot be ignored. Three components of outpatient cystoscopy have been evaluated to improve the cystoscopic experience: local anesthetic control, cystoscopic equipment redesign and environmental modification. We reviewed the literature pertaining to these modifications.

RESULTS: The mean age was 65.3 and 67.1 years for men in the No Music and Music groups, respectively. Although, the majority of patients in each group self-identified as Caucasians (66%), African American, Hispanic and other ethnicities represented 13%, 8% and 13% respectively. The majority of patients (68%) reported experiencing hematuria. Thirty-four percent had a history of bladder cancer, and eighteen percent had a history of prostate cancer. Ten patients (26%) admitted to taking antidepressants. Physiologic parameters that correlated to pain and anxiety (systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and heart rate) were statistically similar in both groups prior to and after flexible cystoscopy. The median delta anxiety between the No Music and Music groups were not significantly different (0.78 vs -1.46), and the pain scores between the No Music and Music groups (1.5 vs 1.6) were not statistically different (P = 0.28 and P = 0.92, respectively).

CONCLUSION: Preliminary results demonstrate that music does not reduce anxiety or pain associated with flexible cystoscopy.

Epigenetics and DNA methylation in cancer

Epigenetic is the study of those alterations regulating gene expression without altering DNA sequence and inherited by transmission through cell division. Mutational and epimutational events that alterate cellular growth and division are combined in carcinogenesis. Advances in genome and epigenome-wide analysis identify DNA hypomethylation, hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes, aberrant histone modifications and/or specific miRNA expression profiles to contribute to tumor initiation and progression. The major challenge for cancer researchers is to enlighten the complex relationship between the epigenetic and genetic machinery in order to optimize combined therapies, reducing chemoresistance and minimizing adverse effects in cancer patients. In this review we will cover many distinct aspects of epigenetic phenomenon. Firstly, we will globally explain the most common epigenetic events and their effects on gene expression regulation. Secondly, we will review the evidence of the correlation between epigenetics and cancer progression, focusing in particular on the effect of aberrant hypo- and hyper-methylation. We will also consider the main methods currently used for methylation analysis, covering both locus-specific technologies and genome-wide analysis. Finally, we will discuss the introduction of novel epigenetic drugs in combination with conventional treatments in order to develop more effective cancer therapies. Such information could help in understanding the important role of epigenetics in cancer.

Pathophysiological responses from human gut microbiome

The human gastrointestinal tract harbors a vast collection of symbiotic microorganisms-collectively termed as “gut microbiome”. This microbiota has important effect in immune system and other host activities. Recent studies have suggested that alterations of the normal gut microbiota are associated with various human diseases and psychological disorders. The underlying cause, once proven, may provide novel insights into the importance of gut flora in human health. In this review, we give an attempt to describe how the alteration in the microbial community causes the development of certain widespread pathophysiological disorders; focusing on inflammatory bowel disease, colorectal cancer, obesity and autism. Proper knowledge about the host-microbiota interaction and linkage could be essential for the development of future personalized strategies of therapeutics.

Obesity research: Status quo and future outlooks

Obesity is a multifactorial disease showing a pandemic increase within the last decades in developing, and developed countries. It is associated with several severe comorbidities such as type II diabetes, hypertension, sleep apnea, non-alcoholic steatosis hepatis and cancer. Due to the increasing number of overweight individuals worldwide, research in the field of obesity has become more vital than ever. Currently, great efforts are spend to understand this complex disease from a biological, psychological and sociological angle. Further insights of obesity research come from bariatric surgery that provides new information regarding hormonal changes during weight loss. The initiation of programs for obesity treatment, both interventional and pharmaceutical, are being pursued with the fullest intensity. Currently, bariatric surgery is the most effective therapy for weight loss and resolution of comorbidities in morbid obese patients. Reasons for weight loss and remission of comorbidities following Roux-en-Y-Gastric Bypass, Sleeve Gastrectomy, and other bariatric procedures are therefore under intense investigation. In this review, however, we will focus on obesity treatment, highlighting new insights and future trends of gut hormone research, the relation of obesity and cancer development via the obesity induced chronic state of inflammation, and new potential concepts of interventional and conservative obesity treatment.

Pharmacogenetics of type 2 diabetes mellitus: An example of success in clinical and translational medicine

The pharmacological interventions currently available to control type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) show a wide interindividual variability in drug response, emphasizing the importance of a personalized, more effective medical treatment for each individual patient. In this context, a growing interest has emerged in recent years and has focused on pharmacogenetics, a discipline aimed at understanding the variability in patients’ drug response, making it possible to predict which drug is best for each patient and at what doses. Recent pharmacological and clinical evidences indicate that genetic polymorphisms (or genetic variations) of certain genes can adversely affect drug response and therapeutic efficacy of oral hypoglycemic agents in patients with T2DM, through pharmacokinetic- and/or pharmacodynamic-based mechanisms that may reduce the therapeutic effects or increase toxicity. For example, genetic variants in genes encoding enzymes of the cytochrome P-450 superfamily, or proteins of the ATP-sensitive potassium channel on the beta-cell of the pancreas, are responsible for the interindividual variability of drug response to sulfonylureas in patients with T2DM. Instead, genetic variants in the genes that encode for the organic cation transporters of metformin have been related to changes in both pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic responses to metformin in metformin-treated patients. Thus, based on the individual’s genotype, the possibility, in these subjects, of a personalized therapy constitutes the main goal of pharmacogenetics, directly leading to the development of the right medicine for the right patient. Undoubtedly, this represents an integral part of the translational medicine network.

Psychotherapy in anorexia nervosa: What does the absence of evidence mean?

Psychological treatment in anorexia nervosa (AN) is disheartening. Psychotherapy is the “treatment of choice” for adults though this recommendation is grounded on the absence of good quality clinical studies. This paper seeks to address the question of why improvements in the psychological treatment of AN have been thwarted, and why one of the best treatments available for adult patients is specialist supportive clinical management that has entered the stage through the backdoor of nonspecific supportive treatments originally serving as a placebo treatment assigned in randomized clinical trials to control for non-specific aspects of true psychosocial treatments. The possibility that most of the psychopathological features that characterise the AN symptoms profile could be best understood as the direct consequences of emaciation would enhance the utility of research with animal models for generating new hypothesis to improve AN treatment.

Nanotechnological approaches in diabetes treatment: A new horizon

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder that affects millions of people worldwide and takes a heavy toll on human life. Treatment of diabetics often poses a problem in selection of the proper drug, its dose and unwanted side effects. Therefore, newer drugs with the least side effects but with highest efficiency are being relentlessly searched for. In recent years, nanotechnology has given new hope for the formulation of various drugs against a myriad of diseases, including diabetes. This review tries to give an overview of the advantages of various new drugs being used, including a wide range of nanoformulations of orthodox as well complementary and alternative medicines. Several studies and research reports based on nanotechnological approaches in the formulation of anti-diabetic drugs have pointed out the fact that research in the formulation of nanodrugs improved strategies for combating diabetes based on the plausible molecular mechanism of action of the drugs. Furthermore, attempts have also been made to delineate the optimum drug concentration and time of exposure in order to recommend a scientifically validated drug dose response in developing different therapeutic strategies. Thus, to a considerable extent, recent studies have contributed towards improving the life expectancy and quality of life of diabetics, through both targeted orthodox medicine and complementary medicine, particularly those obtained from natural resources.

Effects of USPSTF guidelines on patterns of screening and treatment outcomes for prostate cancer

The updated United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) for prostate cancer in 2012 recommends against prostate-specific antigen (PSA) based screening for men of all ages. Prostate cancer is the second most common and second most deadly cancer in American men. PSA screening for prostate cancer has been present since 1994 leading to an over diagnosis and over treatment of low volume disease. There is an overall agreement of men towards the guidelines but even with the understanding of the USPSTF, these men tend to follow more personal beliefs that have been influenced by their knowledge of the disease process and physician influence. Physicians also followed the directions of the patients and opted not to change their current practice of PSA screening despite the new guidelines. Time, legal, and ethical issues were some of the barriers that physicians faced in tailoring their practice towards screening. The importance of informed consent is highlighted by both the patients and the physicians and clearly more effective when the patient was pre-informed of the disease process and prompted the physicians to initiate conversation of informed screening. Younger patients were inclined towards aggressive treatment and older patients opted towards watchful waiting both with emphasis on the importance of evidence-based information provided by the physician. Decision aids were useful in making informed decisions and could be used to educate patients on screening purposes and treatment options. However, even with well-created decision aids and physician influence, patients’ own belief system played a major part in healthcare decision making in either screening or treatment for prostate cancer.

Liver transplantation with grafts obtained after cardiac death-current advances in mastering the challenge

The scarcity of donor livers has increased the interest in donation after cardiac death (DCD) as an additional pool to expand the availability of organs. However, the initial results of liver transplantation with DCD grafts have been suboptimal due to an increased rate of complications, as well as decreased graft survival. These challenges have led to many developments in DCD donation outcome, as well as basic and translational research. In this article we review the unique characteristics of DCD donors, nuances of DCD organ procurement, the effect of prolonged warm and cold ischemia times, and discuss major studies that compared DCD to donation after brain death liver transplantation, in terms of outcomes and complications. We also review the different methods of donor treatment that has been applied to ameliorate DCD organ outcome, and we discuss the role of machine perfusion techniques in organ reconditioning. We discuss the two major perfusion models, namely, hypothermic machine perfusion and normothermic machine perfusion; we compare both methods, and delineate their major differences.

Assessment of platelet function: Laboratory and point-of-care methods

In the event of blood vessel damage, human platelets are promptly recruited on the site of injury and, after their adhesion, activation and aggregation, prevent blood loss with the formation of a clot. The consequence of abnormal regulation can be either hemorrhage or the development of thrombosis. Qualitative and/or quantitative defects in platelets promote bleeding, whereas the residual reactivity of platelets, despite antiplatelet therapies, play an important role in promoting arterial thrombotic complications. Platelet function is traditionally assessed to investigate the origin of a bleeding syndrome, to predict the risk of bleeding prior surgery or during pregnancy or to monitor the efficacy of antiplatelet therapy in thrombotic syndromes that, now, can be considered a new discipline. “Old” platelet function laboratory tests such as the evaluation of bleeding time and the platelet aggregation analysis in platelet-rich plasma are traditionally utilized to aid in the diagnosis and management of patients with platelet and hemostatic disorders and used as diagnostic tools both in bleeding and thrombotic diathesis in specialized laboratories. Now, new and renewed automated systems have been introduced to provide a simple, rapid assessment of platelet function including point of care methods. These new methodologies are also suitable for being used in non-specialized laboratories and in critical area for assessing platelet function in whole blood without the requirement of sample processing. Some of these methods are also beginning to be incorporated into routine clinical use and can be utilized as not only as first panel for the diagnosis of platelet dysfunction, but also for monitoring anti-platelet therapy and to potentially assess risk of both bleeding and/or thrombosis.

Arsenic-induced abnormalities in glucose metabolism: Biochemical basis and potential therapeutic and nutritional interventions

Health hazards due to the consumption of heavy metals such as arsenic have become a worldwide problem. Metabolism of arsenic produces various intermediates which are more toxic and cause toxicity. Arsenic exposure results in impairment of glucose metabolism, insulin secretion in pancreatic β-cells, altered gene expressions and signal transduction, and affects insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in adipocytes or skeletal muscle cells. Arsenic toxicity causes abnormalities in glucose metabolism through an increase in oxidative stress. Arsenic interferes with the sulfhydryl groups and phosphate groups present in various enzymes involved in glucose metabolism including pyruvate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and contributes to their impairment. Arsenic inhibits glucose transporters present in the cell membrane, alters expression of genes involved in glucose metabolism, transcription factors and inflammatory cytokines which stimulate oxidative stress. Some theories suggest that arsenic exposure under diabetic conditions inhibits hyperglycemia. However, the exact mechanism behind the behavior of arsenic as an antagonist or synergist on glucose homeostasis and insulin secretion is not yet fully understood. The present review delineates the relationship between arsenic and the biochemical basis of its relationship to glucose metabolism. This review also addresses potential therapeutic and nutritional interventions for attenuating arsenic toxicity. Several other potential nutritional supplements are highlighted in the review that could be used to combat arsenic toxicity.

Inhibitors of glucose transport and glycolysis as novel anticancer therapeutics

Metabolic reprogramming and altered energetics have become an emerging hallmark of cancer and an active area of basic, translational, and clinical cancer research in the recent decade. Development of effective anticancer therapeutics may depend on improved understanding of the altered cancer metabolism compared to that of normal cells. Changes in glucose transport and glycolysis, which are drastically upregulated in most cancers and termed the Warburg effect, are one of major focuses of this new research area. By taking advantage of the new knowledge and understanding of cancer’s mechanisms, numerous therapeutic agents have been developed to target proteins and enzymes involved in glucose transport and metabolism, with promising results in cancer cells, animal tumor models and even clinical trials. It has also been hypothesized that targeting a pathway or a process, such as glucose transport or glucose metabolism, rather than a specific protein or enzyme in a signaling pathway may be more effective. This is based on the observation that cancer somehow can always bypass the inhibition of a target drug by switching to a redundant or compensatory pathway. In addition, cancer cells have higher dependence on glucose. This review will provide background information on glucose transport and metabolism in cancer, and summarize new therapeutic developments in basic and translational research in these areas, with a focus on glucose transporter inhibitors and glycolysis inhibitors. The daunting challenges facing both basic and clinical researchers of the field are also presented and discussed.

Physics and mathematics of magnetic resonance imaging for nanomedicine: An overview

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) are fundamental concepts used in modern medicine to improve health care. These concepts are based on the principle of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Over the years, various laboratories around the world have applied different numerical techniques based on the Bloch NMR equations to solve specific problems in physics, biology, chemistry, engineering and medicine. The ultimate goal of any physician is to obtain maximum physical, biophysical, chemical and biological information on any tissue or cell under examination. This goal can be achieved by solving the Bloch NMR flow equations analytically. In this review, we present the basic principle of NMR/MRI in a way that can be easily understood by any researcher who needs an NMR concept to solve a specific medical problems. After a very brief history of the subject, a second order, non homogeneous, time-dependent differential equation derived from the Bloch NMR equation is presented. This equation has the basic intrinsic properties of MRI, MRA and MRS that can be extracted by means of classical and quantum mechanics for possible application in nanomedicine.

Translational medical mycology guides clinical and laboratory practice on fungal diseases

Patients with fungal infection having skin lesions may consult a dermatologist, which is a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. Dermatologists take samples from the lesion to check the fungal elements under a microscope by KOH preparation and then treat the patient. This model has advanced from bedside to bench and from bench to bedside (B to B to B), which is defined as Translational Medical Mycology. Dermatologists have an advantageous position in finding, isolating and identifying the pathogenic fungi and treating the patient with antifungal drugs. Samples should be cultured in different media with or without chloramphenicol and cycloheximide and incubated at room temperature or 37 °C. Non-culture techniques such as polymerase chain reaction based molecular identification, transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, biochemistry tests and histopathology are also necessary to confirm the identification of the species, especially when the routine culture is negative. We start treatment upon obtaining evidence of fungal infection, i.e., positive KOH examination. Antifungal drugs such as itraconazole, fluconazole, terbinafine and amphotericin B can be used alone or in combination based on the fungal species and the location of the lesion. Practice on fungal infection includes screening of the patient, merging all of the laboratory techniques and methods from the microbiologists, pathologists, molecular researchers, identification of the pathogen and determination of the optimum antifungal drug.

Epithelial ovarian cancer: An overview

Ovarian cancer is the second most common gynecological cancer and the leading cause of death in the United States. In this article we review the diagnosis and current management of epithelial ovarian cancer which accounts for over 95 percent of the ovarian malignancies. We will present various theories about the potential origin of ovarian malignancies. We will discuss the genetic anomalies and syndromes that may cause ovarian cancers with emphasis on Breast cancer type 1/2 mutations. The pathology and pathogenesis of ovarian carcinoma will also be presented. Lastly, we provide a comprehensive overview of treatment strategies and staging of ovarian cancer, conclusions and future directions.

Neurological and behavioral manifestations of cerebral malaria: An update

Neglected tropical diseases are a group of tropical diseases endemic in poor countries even though medical treatment and cures are available. They are considered a global health problem due to the severity of the physiological changes they induce in their hosts. Malaria is a disease caused by Plasmodium sp. that in its cerebral form may lead to acute or long-term neurological deficits, even with effective antimalarial therapy, causing vascular obstruction, reduced cerebral blood flow and many other changes. However, Plasmodium falciparum infection can also develop into a cerebral malaria (CM) disease that can produce neurological damage. This review will discuss the mechanisms involved in the neuropathology caused by CM, focusing on alterations in cognitive, behavior and neurological functions in human and experimental models.

Concepts of body constitution, health and sub-health from traditional Chinese medicine perspective

This paper described and discussed the important literature and ideas about the concepts, types and measurement of body constitution, in terms of healthy, sub-healthy and disease status. In view of traditional Chinese medicine, ‘‘healthy” state is a status of relative balance of Yin and Yang to keep our bodily homeostasis. If there are significant physical and/or psychological stressors, such as loss of a beloved one and failure in study or work, the body can no longer keep its own bodily condition balanced and subsequently enter a state of ‘‘sub-health” (sub-optimal health). ‘‘unhealthy” body constitution such as ‘‘Dampness-heat”, ‘‘Cold-dampness” and ‘‘Heat- or Cold- dryness” with a subnormal body temperature and humidity and clinical manifestations such as insomnia, malaise and overweight will be presented. Immediate, appropriate strategies such as modification of life-style and seeking medical treatment can prevent evolution of an illness. Otherwise, the body will enter a disease status with a ‘‘pathological” body constitution of ‘‘Yin or Yang deficiency’’, ‘‘Blood-stasis” and/or ‘‘Phlegm-dampness”. To be complimentary with health promotion and disease prevention in Western medicine, understanding about an individual’s body constitution, together with its determinants (e.g., healthy eating and lifestyle behaviors), can contribute to a more proactive, holistic and individualized healthcare.

Molecular recognition of live methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus cells using DNA aptamers

AIM: To generate DNA-aptamers binding to Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).

METHODS: The Cell-Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment (SELEX) technology was used to run the selection against MRSA bacteria and develop target-specific aptamers. MRSA bacteria were targeted while Enterococcus faecalis bacteria were used for counter selection during that process. Binding assays to determine the right aptamer candidates as well as binding assays on clinical samples were performed through flow cytometry and analyzed using the FlowJo software. The characterization of the aptamers was done by determination of their K_d values and determined by analysis of flow data at different aptamer concentration using SigmaPlot. Finally, the recognition of the complex Gold-nanoparticle-aptamer to the bacteria cells was observed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM).

RESULTS: During the cell-SELEX selection process, 17 rounds were necessary to generate enrichment of the pool. While the selection was run using fixed cells, it was shown that the binding of the pools with live cells was giving similar results. After sequencing and analysis of the two last pools, four sequences were identified to be aptamer candidates. The characterization of those aptamers showed that based on their K_d values, DTMRSA4 presented the best binding with a K_d value of 94.61 ± 18.82 nmol/L. A total of ten clinical samples of MRSA, S. aureus and Enterococcus faecalis were obtained to test those aptamers and determine their binding on a panel of samples. DTMRSA1 and DTMRSA3 showed the best results regarding their specificity to MRSA, DTMRSA1 being the most specific of all. Finally, those aptamers were coupled with gold-nanoparticle and their binding to MRSA cells was visualized through TEM showing that adduction of nanoparticles on the aptamers did not change their binding property.

CONCLUSION: A total of four aptamers that bind to MRSA were obtained with K_d values ranking from 94 to 200 nmol/L.

Hypo-activity induced skeletal muscle atrophy and potential nutritional interventions: A review

Periods of hypo-activity result in profound changes in skeletal muscle morphology and strength. This review primarily addresses the differential impact of de-training, bed-rest, limb immobilisation and unilateral lower limb suspension on muscle morphology, strength and fatigability. The degree of muscle atrophy differs depending on the hypo-activity model and the muscles in question, with the leg and postural muscles being the most susceptible to atrophy. Hypo-activity also results in the dramatic loss of strength that often surpasses the loss of muscle mass, and consequently, the nervous system and contractile properties adapt to adjust for this excessive loss of strength. In addition, the degree of muscle strength loss is different depending on the hypo-activity model, with immobilisation appearing to have a greater impact on strength than unloaded models. There is a step-wise difference in the magnitude of muscle loss so that, even after accounting for differential durations of interventions immobilisation ≥ unilateral lower limb suspension ≥ bed-rest ≥ de-training. Muscle fatigability varies between hypo-activity models but the results are equivocal and this may be due to task-specific adaptations. This review also addresses potential nutritional interventions for attenuating hypo-activity induced muscle atrophy and strength declines, in the absence of exercise. Essential amino acid supplementation stands as a strong candidate but other supplements are good contenders for attenuating hypo-activity induced atrophy and strength losses. Several potential nutritional supplements are highlighted that could be used to combat muscle atrophy but extensive research is needed to determine the most effective.

Impact of viral and bacterial infections in coronary artery disease patients

Atherosclerosis is becoming an alarming disease for the existence of healthy human beings in the 21^st century. There are a growing number of agents, either modernized life style generated, competitive work culture related or infection with some bacterial or viral agents, documented every year. These infectious agents do not have proper diagnostics or detection availability in many poor and developing countries. Hence, as active medical researchers, we summarize some aspects of infectious agents and their related mechanisms in this review which may be beneficial for new beginners in this field and update awareness in the field of cardiovascular biology.

Peptide-based boronates: How to achieve tissue specificity in anticancer therapy

Dipeptidyl boronic acids are suitable candidates for the design of “pro-soft” drugs because recent studies have proven that these acids undergo a pH-dependent cyclization equilibrium, generating an inactive cyclic form under physiological conditions. Dipeptidyl boronic acids possess a wide range of potential targets, and the 26S proteasome appears to be one of the main targets. This multicatalytic complex is involved in intracellular protein turnover and is overexpressed in certain pathological conditions, such as malignancies, autoimmune diseases and neurodegenerative diseases. Bortezomib is the first-in-class derivative approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of hematological malignancies (i.e., relapsed and refractory multiple myeloma and mantle cell lymphoma) but is inactive against solid tumors due to an insufficient tissue distribution. The present study suggests a possible strategy for enhancing the in vivo performance of dipeptidyl boronic acids endowed with promising proteasome-inhibiting properties and their applicability as anticancer agents. In particular, dipeptidyl boronic acids might have a fruitful application as pro-soft drugs when an appropriate recognition motif serves as a substrate for a tumor-specific protease, generating the active form of the drug in situ and preventing systemic side effects after diffusion through cells and tissues.

“Diabegon”, a safe and effective polyherbal therapy for type 2 diabetes mellitus

AIM: To investigate the antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic and antioxidant functions of a polyherbal formulation, “Diabegon”, in human subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

METHODS: A total of 33 human subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus were recruited for the study and all anthropological and biochemical parameters were recorded at the time of registration. The subjects were given hot water extract obtained from 10 gm of “Diabegon” powder, “Diabegon kwath”, on an empty stomach everyday in the morning under personal supervision for 6 mo. The therapeutic functions of the “Diabegon kwath” was assessed by monitoring the blood glucose levels at monthly intervals and glycosylated hemoglobin, lipid profile and biomarkers of oxidative stress, liver and kidney function markers at three monthly intervals in the study subjects.

RESULTS: Daily administration of hot water extract of “Diabegon” regularly for 6 mo resulted in significant reductions of blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels. There was also a significant increase in high density lipoprotein cholesterol levels with concomitant decreases in total cholesterol, triglycerides, low density lipoprotein cholesterol and very low density lipoprotein. A significant improvement in glycosuria and proteinuria was also observed. Also, the subjects exhibited a significant improvement in enzymatic and nonenzymatic biochemical markers of oxidative stress. The kidney and liver functions remained normal and in fact improved in many subjects.

CONCLUSION: The study which is first of its kind, advocates “Diabegon kwath” as a safe and effective Ayurvedic therapy for the treatment of human type 2 diabetes mellitus and further placebo controlled trial may substantiate the therapeutic efficacy of the formulation.

Evaluation of three methods for detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

AIM: To evaluate GenoType methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Direct assay and cultivation for the identification of MRSA by using mecA polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as the “gold standard” assay.

METHODS: In total of 61 nasal specimens from patients at the intensive care unit were studied by GenoType MRSA Direct test, conventional culture method and automated bacterial identification system. The results of GenoType MRSA Direct assay were compared to conventional culture method the identification of MRSA and mecA gene PCR as the “gold standard” method. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value were calculated.

RESULTS: In total, 61 specimens were studied. Fifty-four specimens (88.5%) were negative by all three methods. Six swabs (9.8%) were found positive by GenoType MRSA Direct test, conventional culture method and automated bacterial identification system. The presence of mecA in these strains was confirmed by PCR. One swab sample was negative for culture methods but MRSA and mecA gene were detected by GenoType MRSA Direct test and mecA PCR respectively. GenoType MRSA Direct test had a sensitivity of 100% (6/6) and a specificity of 100% (55/55), with a positive predictive value of 100% and a negative predictive value of 98%. Culture method of MRSA had a sensitivity of 83.3% (5/6) and a specificity of 98.2% (55/56).

CONCLUSION: It was found that the GenoType MRSA Direct assay, which is a rapid and accurate test, is of the same sensitivity and specificity with mecA PCR. The GenoType MRSA Direct assay can be a better tool for rapid and accurate detection of MRSA in diagnostic laboratories.

Examining the relationship between physical fitness and spiritual fitness in cancer patients: A pilot study

AIM: To examine the relationship between spiritual fitness and overall physical fitness, and their resulting impact on feelings of depression and anxiety in individuals being treated for cancer.

METHODS: Thirty patients completed the McGill Quality of Life questionnaire and the Spiritual Fitness Assessment survey, and were asked to classify themselves as “Religious” or “Non-Religious”. After the questionnaires were completed, each patient underwent a comprehensive fitness assessment, which included assessments for VO_2max, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, and body composition, as well as height, weight, and resting heart rate and blood pressure. The data collected were averaged and analyzed using a one-way ANOVA test at the 0.05 level of significance.

RESULTS: Of the 30 participants, 17 classified themselves as “religious” (R) and 13 classified themselves as “non-religious” (NR). The R group had a higher body fat percentage and a lower VO_2max than the NR group. However, these results were not significant. It was also determined that the R group scored themselves significantly higher than the NR group on the Spiritual Fitness questionnaire, but reported significantly higher levels of depression and anxiety than their non-religious counterparts.

CONCLUSION: Health beliefs did not necessarily back up health practice; specifically, those respondents who classified themselves as “religious” reported that their beliefs positively influenced their health behaviors, yet physiological and psychological data did not support this claim.

High-potency sucralfate prevents and rapidly reverses chemo-radiation mucositis in a patient with stage 4b head and neck cancer

AIM: To study usefulness of high-potency sucralfate (HPS) in a patient with chemoradiation mucositis and discuss its mechanism of action.

METHODS: HPS, a non-covalently cross-link of sucralfate, cations and bidentate anionic chelators, has a maintains a surface concentration of sucralfate 3 h following administration that is 7-23 fold that possible with standard-potency sucralfate. The accelerated mucosal healing and pain alleviation of HPS in patients with erosive esophageal reflux, prompted its use in this patient with chemoradiation mucositis of the oropharynx and alimentary tract. A literature-based review of the immuno-modulatory effects of sucralfate is discussed.

RESULTS: Within 48 h of intervention: (1) there was complete disappearance of oral mucositis lesions; tenderness with (2) patient-reported disappearance of pain, nausea and diarrhea; patient required (3) no opiate analgesia and (4) no tube-feeding supplements to regular diet. Dysgeusia and xerostomia persisted. A modified Naranjo Questionnaire score of 10 supported the likelihood that HPS intervention caused the observed clinical effects. No adverse reactions noted.

CONCLUSION: In this patient HPS was useful to treat chemo-radiation mucositis of the oropharynx and alimentary tract. HPS may directly or indirectly facilitate an immunomodulatory mechanism involving accelerated growth factor activation, which may be a new target for therapeutic intervention in such patients.

Cognitive, behavioural and psychiatric phenotypes associated with steroid sulfatase deficiency

The enzyme steroid sulfatase (STS) desulfates a variety of steroid compounds thereby altering their activity. STS is expressed in the skin, and its deficiency in this tissue has been linked to the dermatological condition X-linked ichthyosis. STS is also highly expressed in the developing and adult human brain, and in a variety of steroidogenic organs (including the placenta and gonads); therefore it has the potential to influence brain development and function directly and/or indirectly (through influencing the hormonal milieu). In this review, we first discuss evidence from human and animal model studies suggesting that STS deficiency might predispose to neurobehavioural abnormalities and certain psychiatric disorders. We subsequently discuss potential mechanisms that may underlie these vulnerabilities. The data described herein have potential implications for understanding the complete spectrum of clinical phenotypes associated with X-linked ichthyosis, and may indicate novel pathogenic mechanisms underlying psychological dysfunction in developmental disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and Turner syndrome.