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Li L, Liu Y, Zhou W, Yang C, Feng T, Li H. Human chorionic gonadotrophin indirectly activates peripheral γδT cells to produce interleukin-10 during early pregnancy. Immun Inflamm Dis 2024; 12:e1119. [PMID: 38270320 PMCID: PMC10777880 DOI: 10.1002/iid3.1119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUNDS The immunomodulatory properties of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) have been identified to be critical for successful pregnancy. However, the effects of hCG on peripheral γδT cells during early pregnancy have not been reported previously. METHODS We cocultured the purified γδT cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with early pregnancy-relevant hCG concentrations and investigated the changes in the immune functional characteristics of γδT cells via flow cytometry assays. RESULTS The ratios of CD69+ and IL-10+ γδT cells were increased in early pregnant women compared to nonpregnant women. γδT cells expressed low levels of the mannose receptor (CD206) instead of the classical hCG/LH receptor for hCG. The direct treatment of purified γδT cells with early pregnancy-relevant hCG concentrations may have no significant effects on their immune functions. Interestingly, when PBMCs were treated with the same broad range of hCG concentrations, the ratios of CD69+ and IL-10+ γδT cells to total γδT cells were significantly increased. CONCLUSION Certain early pregnancy-relevant hCG concentrations could enhance the ratios of peripheral CD69+ and IL-10+ γδT cells, contributing to the activation of γδT cells and immunological tolerance during early pregnancy. However, these affects may not be strongly mediated by direct ligand-receptor interactions and they may highly depend on immune microenvironment. Our novel observations propose a perspective into the endocrine-immune dialog that exists between the fetus and maternal immune cells.
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Lentz LS, Stutz AJ, Meyer N, Schubert K, Karkossa I, von Bergen M, Zenclussen AC, Schumacher A. Human chorionic gonadotropin promotes murine Treg cells and restricts pregnancy-harmful proinflammatory Th17 responses. Front Immunol 2022; 13:989247. [PMID: 36203576 PMCID: PMC9531259 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.989247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
An equilibrium between proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory immune responses is essential for maternal tolerance of the fetus throughout gestation. To study the participation of fetal tissue-derived factors in this delicate immune balance, we analyzed the effects of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) on murine Treg cells and Th17 cells in vitro, and on pregnancy outcomes, fetal and placental growth, blood flow velocities and remodeling of the uterine vascular bed in vivo. Compared with untreated CD4+CD25+ T cells, hCG increased the frequency of Treg cells upon activation of the LH/CG receptor. hCG, with the involvement of IL-2, also interfered with induced differentiation of CD4+ T cells into proinflammatory Th17 cells. In already differentiated Th17 cells, hCG induced an anti-inflammatory profile. Transfer of proinflammatory Th17 cells into healthy pregnant mice promoted fetal rejection, impaired fetal growth and resulted in insufficient remodeling of uterine spiral arteries, and abnormal flow velocities. Our works show that proinflammatory Th17 cells have a negative influence on pregnancy that can be partly avoided by in vitro re-programming of proinflammatory Th17 cells with hCG.
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Gridelet V, Perrier d'Hauterive S, Polese B, Foidart JM, Nisolle M, Geenen V. Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin: New Pleiotropic Functions for an "Old" Hormone During Pregnancy. Front Immunol 2020; 11:343. [PMID: 32231662 PMCID: PMC7083149 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) is the first specific molecule synthesized by the embryo. hCG RNA is transcribed as early as the eight-cell stage, and the blastocyst produces the protein before its implantation. hCG in the uterine microenvironment binds with its cognate receptor, luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor (LHCGR), on the endometrial surface. This binding stimulates leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) production and inhibits interleukin-6 (IL-6) production by epithelial cells of the endometrium. These effects ensure essential help in the preparation of the endometrium for initial embryo implantation. hCG also effects angiogenic and immunomodulatory actions as reported in many articles by our laboratories and other ones. By stimulating angiogenesis and vasculogenesis, hCG provides the placenta with an adequate maternal blood supply and optimal embryo nutrition during the invasion of the uterine endometrium. The immunomodulatory properties of hCG are numerous and important for programming maternal immune tolerance toward the embryo. The reported effects of hCG on uterine NK, Treg, and B cells, three major cell populations for the maintenance of pregnancy, demonstrate the role of this embryonic signal as a crucial immune regulator in the course of pregnancy. Human embryo rejection for hCG-related immunological reasons has been studied in different ways, and a sufficient dose of hCG seems to be necessary to maintain maternal tolerance. Different teams have studied the addition of hCG in patients suffering from recurrent miscarriages or implantation failures. hCG could also have a beneficial or a negative impact on autoimmune diseases during pregnancy. In this review, we will discuss the immunological impacts of hCG during pregnancy and if this hormone might be used therapeutically.
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Makrigiannakis A, Vrekoussis T, Zoumakis E, Kalantaridou SN, Jeschke U. The Role of HCG in Implantation: A Mini-Review of Molecular and Clinical Evidence. Int J Mol Sci 2017. [PMID: 28629172 PMCID: PMC5486126 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18061305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Embryo implantation is a complex process involving continuous molecular cross-talk between the embryo and the decidua. One of the key molecules during this process is human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG). HCG effectively modulates several metabolic pathways within the decidua contributing to endometrial receptivity. Herein, a brief overview of the molecular mechanisms regulated by HCG is presented. Furthermore, we summarize the existing evidence regarding the clinical impact on reproductive outcomes after endometrial priming with HCG prior to embryo transfer. Although promising, further evidence is needed to clarify the protocol that would lead to beneficial outcomes.
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Hershko Klement A, Shulman A. hCG Triggering in ART: An Evolutionary Concept. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:E1075. [PMID: 28513550 PMCID: PMC5454984 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18051075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2017] [Revised: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is no longer a single, omnipotent ovulation triggering option. Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist, initially presented as a substitute for hCG, has led to a new era of administering GnRH agonist followed by hCG triggering. According to this new concept, GnRH agonist enables successful ovum maturation, while hCG supports the luteal phase and pregnancy until placental shift.
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Borisova MA, Moiseenko DY, Smirnova OV. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin: Unknown about Known. FIZIOLOGIIA CHELOVEKA 2017; 43:97-110. [PMID: 29509368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The last two decade discoveries shift the accent from consideration of human chorionic gonadotripin (hCG) as a hormone, that controls progesterone production by corpus luteum cells, to a powerful paracrine regulator which'in the tandem with its hyperglycozilated analog (hCG-H) induces successful implantation and coordinated dialog between blastocyst and uterus tissues. Ability of hCG to interact with TSH receptor and hCG-H with TGF-beta-RII extend significantly the spectrum of processes controlled by these molecules. Differences between intracellular pathways of signal transduction between hCG and LH mediated by the same receptor (LH/hCG-R) impugn unity of their effector mechanisms previously considered as obvious. Paracine properties-of hCG comprise control of fusing of trophoblasts into syncytiotrophoblasts, angiogenesis, immunity regulation and endometrium predisposition to implantation. Angiogenesis is associated with LH/hCG-R expressed on mural cells of uterine spiral arteries as well as induced secretion of soluble VEGF type by endometrial cells. hCG.regulates ratio between different forms of T-helper cells in maternal organism on the initial gestation stage determining high level of Th2 cells. hCG supports local immunotolerance acting as chemoattractant for T-suppressors (T-Treg) and apoptotic factor for T-lymphocytes. Endometrial susceptibility arises from activation of osteopantin secretion and decline of mucin secretion by epithelial cells. hCG-H acts on the same tissues as hCG as a paracrine agent regulating multiple cascades of cytokines. hCG-H plays the key role in trophoblast invasion into,uterine decidua as a result of gelatinase secretion by these cells.The degree of angiogenic effect of hCG-H is compatiblewith hCG but its signal transduction is mediated by TGF-beta signal transduction pathway that stimulates mural cell proliferation. hCG-H acts as mitogen on NK-cells and is able to activate them and direct to angiogenesis maintenance. In this article the attempt was made to elucidate the most important discoveries about the role of hCG and its hyperglycosylated analog yet accomplished and still upcoming.
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Shirshev SV, Nekrasova IV, Gorbunova OL, Orlova EG. [The Influence of Chorionic Gonadotropin and Estriol on NK Cells Phenotype and Functional Activity.]. FIZIOLOGIIA CHELOVEKA 2016; 42:102-107. [PMID: 29932555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The influence of chorionic gonadotropin (CG) and estriol (E3) at concentrations typical of pregnancy on the expression of phenotypic markers and cytokine production by separated NK cells were studied. It is found that these hormones increase the percentage of CD56brightL-selectin+ NK-cells, but also stimulate the expression of the inhibitory molecule NKG2A in the lymphocytes. In addition, E3 and CG stimulate the production of TGF-B, inhibiting the secretion of all other cytokines by separated NK cells. In general, these hor- mones contribute to the formation of the phenotype and cytokine spectrum characteristic of the regulatory NK3 subpopulation of NK cells during pregnancy.
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Abstract
A case is reported of a patient who presented to his family doctor with a short history of cough with signs and symptoms of thyrotoxicosis. Carbimazole treatment had little effect and his symptoms worsened to include severe shortness of breath. He was investigated further and found to have multiple lung and liver metastases from an unknown primary site. Biopsy and subsequent post-mortem investigations revealed a testicular tumour and a grossly elevated serum human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) concentration. The biochemical and clinical thyrotoxicosis is presumed to be due to the thyrotrophic activity of excess hCG secretion, in a situation analogous to that seen in hydatidiform mole or in hyperemesis gravidarum.
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Fournier T, Guibourdenche J, Evain-Brion D. Review: hCGs: different sources of production, different glycoforms and functions. Placenta 2015; 36 Suppl 1:S60-5. [PMID: 25707740 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2015.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Revised: 02/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is the first hormonal message from the placenta to the mother. It is detectable in maternal blood two days after implantation and behaves like an agonist of LH stimulating progesterone secretion by the corpus luteum. hCG has also a role in quiescence of the myometrium and local immune tolerance. Specific to humans, hCG is a complex glycoprotein composed of two glycosylated subunits. The α-subunit is identical to the pituitary gonadotropin hormones (LH, FSH, TSH), contains two N-glycosylation sites, and is encoded by a single gene (CGA). By contrast the β-subunits are distinct in each of the hormones and confer receptor and biological specificity. The hCG β-subunit contains two sites of N-glycosylation and four sites of O-glycosylation and is encoded by a cluster of genes (CGB). In this review, we will stress the importance of hCG glycosylation state, which varies with the stage of pregnancy, its source of production and in the pathology. It is well established that hCG is mainly secreted by the syncytiotrophoblast into maternal blood where it peaks around 8-10 weeks of gestation (WG). The invasive extravillous trophoblast also secretes hCG, and in particular like choriocarcinoma cells, hyperglycosylated forms of hCG (hCG-H). In maternal blood hCG-H is high during early first trimester. In addition to its endocrine role, hCG has autocrine and paracrine roles. It promotes formation of the syncytiotrophoblast and angiogenesis through LHCG receptor. In contrast, hCG-H stimulates trophoblast invasion and angiogenesis by interacting with the TGFβ receptor 2. hCG is largely used in antenatal screening and hCG-H represents a serum marker of early trophoblast invasion. Other abnormally glycosylated hCG are described in aneuploidies. In conclusion, hCG is the major pregnancy glycoprotein hormone, whose maternal concentration and glycan structure change all along pregnancy. Depending on its source of production, glycoforms of hCG display different biological activities and functions that are essential for pregnancy outcome.
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Dabrowski F, Grzechocinska B, Cyganek A, Wielgos M. Non trophoblastic source of human chorionic gonadotropin - problem in diagnostic accuracy. NEURO ENDOCRINOLOGY LETTERS 2015; 36:316-319. [PMID: 26454486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2015] [Accepted: 07/15/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a polypeptide hormone studied as far as 1912, but researchers has no complete knowledge concerning its biological function. Since 1970' it is known that hCG can be found not only in the urine and serum of pregnant, but in choriocarcinoma and testicular cancer patients. Up-to-date one can distinguish four subtypes of hCG differing in secondary carbohydrate chains configuration as well as it regular and glycosylated forms, but non trophoblastic sources of this hormone, such as pituitary are still not widely known. The article gives an overlook on hCG studies in order to help clinicians in taking wise, evidence based decisions in asymptomatic patients with elevated hCG.
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Sisinni L, Landriscina M. The Role of Human Chorionic Gonadotropin as Tumor Marker: Biochemical and Clinical Aspects. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2015; 867:159-76. [PMID: 26530366 DOI: 10.1007/978-94-017-7215-0_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Tumor markers are biological substances that are produced/released mainly by malignant tumor cells, enter the circulation in detectable amounts and are potential indicators of the presence of a tumor. The most useful biochemical markers are the tumor-specific molecules, i.e., receptors, enzymes, hormones, growth factors or biological response modifiers that are specifically produced by tumor cells and not, or minimally, by the normal counterpart (Richard et al. Principles and practice of gynecologic oncology. Wolters Kluwer Health, Philadelphia, 2009). Based on their specificity and sensitivity in each malignancy, biomarkers are used for screening, diagnosis, disease monitoring and therapeutic response assessment in clinical management of cancer patients.This chapter is focused on human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), a hormone with a variety of functions and widely used as a tumor biomarker in selected tumors. Indeed, hCG is expressed by both trophoblastic and non-trophoblastic human malignancies and plays a role in cell transformation, angiogenesis, metastatization, and immune escape, all process central to cancer progression. Of note, hCG testing is crucial for the clinical management of placental trophoblastic malignancies and germ cell tumors of the testis and the ovary. Furthermore, the production of hCG by tumor cells is accompanied by varying degrees of release of the free subunits into the circulation, and this is relevant for the management of cancer patients (Triozzi PL, Stevens VC, Oncol Rep 6(1):7-17, 1999).The name chorionic gonadotropin was conceived: chorion derives from the latin chordate meaning afterbirth, gonadotropin indicates that the hormone is a gonadotropic molecule, acting on the ovaries and promoting steroid production (Cole LA, Int J Endocrinol Metab 9(2):335-352, 2011). The function, the mechanism of action and the interaction between hCG and its receptor continue to be the subject of intensive investigation, even though many issues about hCG have been well documented (Tegoni M et al., J Mol Biol 289(5):1375-1385, 1999).
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Pramanick K, Kundu S, Paul S, Mallick B, Roy Moulik S, Pal P, Mukherjee D. Steroid-induced oocyte maturation in Indian shad Tenualosa ilisha (Hamilton, 1822) is dependent on phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase but not MAP kinase activation. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2014; 390:26-33. [PMID: 24726901 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2014.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Revised: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Fully grown fish and amphibian oocytes exposed to a maturation-inducing steroid (MIS) activates multiple signal transduction pathways, leading to formation and activation of maturation-promoting factor (MPF) and induction of germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD). The present study was to investigate if phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3 kinase) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) activation are required for naturally occurring MIS, 17α,20β-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (17,20β-P)-induced cdc2 activation and oocyte maturation (OM) in Tenualosa ilisha. We observed that 17,20β-P-induced OM was significantly inhibited by PI3 kinase inhibitors Wortmannin and LY29400. 17,20 β-P was shown to activate PI3 kinase maximally at 90 min and cdc2 kinase at 16 h of treatment. Relative involvement of PI3 kinase, MAP kinase and cdc2 kinase in 17,20β-P-induced OM was examined. MAP kinase was rapidly phosphorylated and activated (60-120 min) after MIS treatment and this response preceded the activation of cdc2 kinase by several hours. A selective inhibitor of MAP kinase (MEK), PD98059, sufficiently blocked the phosphorylation and activation of MAP kinase. Inhibition of MAP kinase activity using PD98059 however, had no effect on MIS-induced cdc2 kinase activation and GVBD. These results demonstrate that activation of the PI3 kinase is required for 17,20β-P-induced cdc2 kinase activation and OM in T. ilisha. MAP kinase although was activated in response to 17,20β-P and PI3 kinase activation, it is not necessary for cdc2 activation and OM in this species.
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Gonzalez B, Ratner LD, Scerbo MJ, Di Giorgio NP, Poutanen M, Huhtaniemi IT, Calandra RS, Lux-Lantos VAR, Cambiasso MJ, Rulli SB. Elevated hypothalamic aromatization at the onset of precocious puberty in transgenic female mice hypersecreting human chorionic gonadotropin: effect of androgens. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2014; 390:102-11. [PMID: 24755422 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2014.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2014] [Revised: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Transgenic female mice overexpressing the α- and β- subunits of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCGαβ+) exhibited precocious puberty, as evidenced by early vaginal opening. Chronically elevated hCG in 21-day-old hCGαβ+ females stimulated gonadal androgen production, which exerted negative feedback over the endogenous gonadotropin synthesis, and activated the hypothalamic GnRH pulsatility and gene expression. Transgenic females also exhibited elevated hypothalamic aromatization in the preoptic area (POA), which is the sexually-differentiated area that controls the LH surge in adulthood. Ovariectomy at 14 days of age was unable to rescue this phenotype. However, the blockade of androgen action by flutamide from postnatal day 6 onwards reduced the aromatase levels in the POA of hCGαβ+ females. Our results suggest that early exposure of females to androgen action during a critical period between postnatal days 6-14 induces sex-specific organizational changes of the brain, which affect the aromatase expression in the POA at the onset of precocious puberty.
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Abstract
Luteinizing hormone (LH) and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) are integral components of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, which controls sexual maturation and functionality. In the absence of signaling through their shared receptor, fetal sexual differentiation and post-natal development cannot proceed normally. Although they share a high degree of homology, the physiologic roles of these hormones are unique, governed by differences in expression pattern, biopotency and regulation. Whereas LH is a key regulator of gonadal steroidogenesis and ovulation, hCG is predominantly active in pregnancy and fetal development. Emerging evidence has revealed endogenous functions not previously ascribed to hCG, including participation in ovulation and fertilization, implantation, placentation and other activities in support of successful pregnancy. Spontaneous and induced mutations in LH, hCG and their mutual receptor have contributed substantially to our understanding of reproductive development and function. The lack of naturally occurring, functionally significant mutations in the β-subunit of hCG reinforce its putative role in establishment of pregnancy. Rescue of reproductive abnormalities resulting from aberrant gonadotropin signaling is possible in certain clinical contexts, depending on the nature of the underlying defect. By understanding the physiologic roles of LH and hCG in normal and pathologic states, we may better harness their diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic potential.
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Barberi M, Di Paolo V, Latini S, Guglielmo MC, Cecconi S, Canipari R. Expression and functional activity of PACAP and its receptors on cumulus cells: effects on oocyte maturation. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2013; 375:79-88. [PMID: 23684890 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2013.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Revised: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 05/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and its receptor PAC1-R (PACAP type 1 receptor) are transiently expressed in granulosa cells (GCs) of mouse preovulatory follicles and affect several parameters associated with the ovulatory process. We investigated the expression of PACAP and its receptors in cumulus cells (CCs) after the LH surge and their role on cumulus expansion/apoptosis and oocyte maturation. PACAP and PAC1-R expression increased in CCs isolated at different times after treatment with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). Moreover, PACAP was able to reverse the inhibition of oocyte meiotic maturation caused by hypoxantine in cumulus cell-oocyte complexes (COCs) and efficiently promoted male pronuclear formation after fertilisation. PACAP was also able to induce cumulus expansion and prevent CC apoptosis. Our results demonstrated the induction of PACAP and its receptors in CCs by LH and EGF, suggesting that PACAP may play a significant role in the complex interactions of gonadotropin and growth factors during ovulation and fertilisation.
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MESH Headings
- 8-Bromo Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate/pharmacology
- Amphiregulin
- Animals
- Apoptosis
- Cell Nucleus/physiology
- Cell Proliferation
- Cells, Cultured
- Chorionic Gonadotropin/physiology
- Cumulus Cells/drug effects
- Cumulus Cells/metabolism
- Cytoplasm/metabolism
- EGF Family of Proteins
- Epidermal Growth Factor/physiology
- Female
- Fertilization in Vitro
- Follicle Stimulating Hormone/physiology
- Glycoproteins/genetics
- Glycoproteins/metabolism
- Humans
- Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/genetics
- Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/metabolism
- Male
- Mice
- Oocytes/physiology
- Ovulation/metabolism
- Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide/genetics
- Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide/metabolism
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptors, Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide, Type I/genetics
- Receptors, Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide, Type I/metabolism
- Receptors, Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide, Type II/genetics
- Receptors, Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide, Type II/metabolism
- Sperm Head/physiology
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Lee CL, Chiu PCN, Hautala L, Salo T, Yeung WSB, Stenman UH, Koistinen H. Human chorionic gonadotropin and its free β-subunit stimulate trophoblast invasion independent of LH/hCG receptor. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2013; 375:43-52. [PMID: 23684886 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2013.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2012] [Revised: 05/08/2013] [Accepted: 05/08/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Both paracrine and autocrine factors are involved in the regulation of trophoblast invasion. One of these factors is human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which stimulates trophoblast invasion. The stimulatory activity has especially been ascribed to a hyperglycosylated form of hCG (hCG-h) that is expressed in early pregnancy. We compared the stimulatory activities of different forms of hCG and its free β-subunit (hCGβ) on trophoblast invasion. hCG, hCG-h, hCGβ, and its hyperglycosylated form (hCGβ-h) stimulated the invasion of JEG-3 choriocarcinoma cells. The stimulatory effect of hCGβ was also confirmed with primary human trophoblasts. Down-regulation of the LH/hCG receptor by RNA-interference did not significantly reduce the effect of hCGβ and hCG on cell invasion. Increased invasion was associated with increased levels of MMP-2, MMP-9 and activity of uPA. Our findings suggest that hCG, hCGβ and their hyperglycosylated forms stimulate the invasion of trophoblast cells independent of the classical LH/hCG-receptor.
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Herr D, Fraser HM, Konrad R, Holzheu I, Kreienberg R, Wulff C. Human chorionic gonadotropin controls luteal vascular permeability via vascular endothelial growth factor by down-regulation of a cascade of adhesion proteins. Fertil Steril 2013; 99:1749-58. [PMID: 23465821 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.01.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2012] [Revised: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study the functional interactions of junctional proteins acting as regulators of vascular permeability in the human corpus luteum. We investigated the role of vascular endothelial (VE)-cadherin, nectin 2, and claudin 5 as controllers of vascular endothelial cell permeability. DESIGN Performing immunohistochemical dual staining, we colocalized the above-mentioned proteins in the human corpus luteum. SETTING Not applicable. PATIENT(S) Not applicable. INTERVENTION(S) Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Using a granulosa-endothelial coculture system, we revealed that hCG-treatment down-regulates VE-cadherin, nectin 2, and claudin 5 in endothelial cells via vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGFA). RESULT(S) Furthermore, the interaction of VE-cadherin, nectin 2, and claudin 5 was investigated by silencing these proteins that perform siRNA knockdown. Interestingly, knockdown of VE-cadherin and claudin 5 induced a decrease of the respective other protein. This down-regulation was associated with changed rates of vascular permeability: hCG induced a VEGFA-dependent down-regulation of VE-cadherin, nectin 2, and claudin 5, which increased the endothelial permeability in the coculture system. Furthermore, knockdown of VE-cadherin, nectin-2, and claudin 5 also resulted in a consecutive increase of endothelial permeability for each different protein. CONCLUSION(S) These results demonstrate for the first time that VE-cadherin, nectin 2, and claudin 5 are involved in the regulation of vascular permeability in a mutually interacting manner, which indicates their prominent role for the functionality of the human corpus luteum.
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Park ES, Park J, Franceschi RT, Jo M. The role for runt related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) as a transcriptional repressor in luteinizing granulosa cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 362:165-75. [PMID: 22713854 PMCID: PMC3864655 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2012.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2011] [Revised: 05/08/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Transcription factors induced by the LH surge play a vital role in reprogramming the gene expression in periovulatory follicles. The present study investigated the role of RUNX2 transcription factor in regulating the expression of Runx1, Ptgs2, and Tnfaip6 using cultured granulosa cells isolated from PMSG-primed immature rats. hCG or forskolin+PMA induced the transient increase in Runx1, Ptgs2, and Tnfaip6 expression, while the expression of Runx2 continued to increase until 48 h. The knockdown of the agonist-stimulated Runx2 expression increased Runx1, Ptgs2, and Tnfaip6 expression and PGE(2) levels in luteinizing granulosa cells. Conversely, the over-expression of RUNX2 inhibited the expression of these genes and PGE(2) levels. The mutation of RUNX binding motifs in the Runx1 promoter enhanced transcriptional activity of the Runx1 promoter. The knockdown and overexpression of Runx2 increased and decreased Runx1 promoter activity, respectively. ChIP assays revealed the binding of RUNX2 in the Runx1 and Ptgs2 promoters. Together, these novel findings provide support for the role of RUNX2 in down-regulation of Runx1, Ptgs2, and Tnfaip6 during the late ovulatory period to support proper ovulation and/or luteinization.
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Casarini L, Lispi M, Longobardi S, Milosa F, La Marca A, Tagliasacchi D, Pignatti E, Simoni M. LH and hCG action on the same receptor results in quantitatively and qualitatively different intracellular signalling. PLoS One 2012; 7:e46682. [PMID: 23071612 PMCID: PMC3465272 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0046682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2012] [Accepted: 09/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human luteinizing hormone (hLH) and chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) act on the same receptor (LHCGR) but it is not known whether they elicit the same cellular and molecular response. This study compares for the first time the activation of cell-signalling pathways and gene expression in response to hLH and hCG. Using recombinant hLH and recombinant hCG we evaluated the kinetics of cAMP production in COS-7 and hGL5 cells permanently expressing LHCGR (COS-7/LHCGR, hGL5/LHCGR), as well as cAMP, ERK1/2, AKT activation and progesterone production in primary human granulosa cells (hGLC). The expression of selected target genes was measured in the presence or absence of ERK- or AKT-pathways inhibitors. In COS-7/LHCGR cells, hCG is 5-fold more potent than hLH (cAMP ED50: 107.1±14.3 pM and 530.0±51.2 pM, respectively). hLH maximal effect was significantly faster (10 minutes by hLH; 1 hour by hCG). In hGLC continuous exposure to equipotent doses of gonadotropins up to 36 hours revealed that intracellular cAMP production is oscillating and significantly higher by hCG versus hLH. Conversely, phospho-ERK1/2 and -AKT activation was more potent and sustained by hLH versus hCG. ERK1/2 and AKT inhibition removed the inhibitory effect on NRG1 (neuregulin) expression by hLH but not by hCG; ERK1/2 inhibition significantly increased hLH- but not hCG-stimulated CYP19A1 (aromatase) expression. We conclude that: i) hCG is more potent on cAMP production, while hLH is more potent on ERK and AKT activation; ii) hGLC respond to equipotent, constant hLH or hCG stimulation with a fluctuating cAMP production and progressive progesterone secretion; and iii) the expression of hLH and hCG target genes partly involves the activation of different pathways depending on the ligand. Therefore, the LHCGR is able to differentiate the activity of hLH and hCG.
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Maymó JL, Pérez Pérez A, Maskin B, Dueñas JL, Calvo JC, Sánchez Margalet V, Varone CL. The alternative Epac/cAMP pathway and the MAPK pathway mediate hCG induction of leptin in placental cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e46216. [PMID: 23056265 PMCID: PMC3462743 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0046216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2012] [Accepted: 08/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Pleiotropic effects of leptin have been identified in reproduction and pregnancy, particularly in the placenta, where it works as an autocrine hormone. In this work, we demonstrated that human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) added to JEG-3 cell line or to placental explants induces endogenous leptin expression. We also found that hCG increased cAMP intracellular levels in BeWo cells in a dose-dependent manner, stimulated cAMP response element (CRE) activity and the cotransfection with an expression plasmid of a dominant negative mutant of CREB caused a significant inhibition of hCG stimulation of leptin promoter activity. These results demonstrate that hCG indeed activates cAMP/PKA pathway, and that this pathway is involved in leptin expression. Nevertheless, we found leptin induction by hCG is dependent on cAMP levels. Treatment with (Bu)2cAMP in combination with low and non stimulatory hCG concentrations led to an increase in leptin expression, whereas stimulatory concentrations showed the opposite effect. We found that specific PKA inhibition by H89 caused a significant increase of hCG leptin induction, suggesting that probably high cAMP levels might inhibit hCG effect. It was found that hCG enhancement of leptin mRNA expression involved the MAPK pathway. In this work, we demonstrated that hCG leptin induction through the MAPK signaling pathway is inhibited by PKA. We observed that ERK1/2 phosphorylation increased when hCG treatment was combined with H89. In view of these results, the involvement of the alternative cAMP/Epac signaling pathway was studied. We observed that a cAMP analogue that specifically activates Epac (CPT-OMe) stimulated leptin expression by hCG. In addition, the overexpression of Epac and Rap1 proteins increased leptin promoter activity and enhanced hCG. In conclusion, we provide evidence suggesting that hCG induction of leptin gene expression in placenta is mediated not only by activation of the MAPK signaling pathway but also by the alternative cAMP/Epac signaling pathway.
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Iliodromiti Z, Antonakopoulos N, Sifakis S, Tsikouras P, Daniilidis A, Dafopoulos K, Botsis D, Vrachnis N. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine placental mediators in labor. Hormones (Athens) 2012; 11:397-409. [PMID: 23422762 DOI: 10.14310/horm.2002.1371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Considering that preterm birth accounts for about 6-10% of all births in Western countries and of more than 65% of all perinatal deaths, elucidation of the particularly complicated mechanisms of labor is essential for determination of appropriate and effective therapeutic interventions. Labor in humans results from a complex interplay of fetal and maternal factors, which act upon the uterus to trigger pathways leading gradually to a coordinated cervical ripening and myometrial contractility. Although the exact mechanism of labor still remains uncertain, several components have been identified and described in detail. Based on the major role played by the human placenta in pregnancy and the cascade of labor processes activated via placental mediators exerting endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine actions, this review article has aimed at presenting the role of these mediators in term and preterm labor and the molecular pathways of their actions. Some of the aforementioned mediators are involved in myometrial activation and preparation and others in myometrial stimulation leading to delivery. In the early stages of pregnancy, myometrial molecules, like progesterone, nitric oxide, and relaxin, contribute to the retention of pregnancy. At late stages of gestation, fetal hypothalamus maturation signals act on the placenta causing the production of hormones, including CRH, in an endocrine manner; the signals then enhance paracrinically the production of more hormones, such as estrogens and neuropeptides, that contribute to cervical ripening and uterine contractility. These molecules act directly on the myometrium through specific receptors, while cytokines and multiple growth factors are also produced, additionally contributing to labor. In situations leading to preterm labor, as in maternal stress and fetal infection, cytokines trigger placental signaling sooner, thus leading to preterm birth.
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Duarte A, Poderoso C, Cooke M, Soria G, Cornejo Maciel F, Gottifredi V, Podestá EJ. Mitochondrial fusion is essential for steroid biosynthesis. PLoS One 2012; 7:e45829. [PMID: 23029265 PMCID: PMC3448708 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2012] [Accepted: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the contribution of mitochondrial dynamics (a balance in fusion/fission events and changes in mitochondria subcellular distribution) to key biological process has been reported, the contribution of changes in mitochondrial fusion to achieve efficient steroid production has never been explored. The mitochondria are central during steroid synthesis and different enzymes are localized between the mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum to produce the final steroid hormone, thus suggesting that mitochondrial fusion might be relevant for this process. In the present study, we showed that the hormonal stimulation triggers mitochondrial fusion into tubular-shaped structures and we demonstrated that mitochondrial fusion does not only correlate-with but also is an essential step of steroid production, being both events depend on PKA activity. We also demonstrated that the hormone-stimulated relocalization of ERK1/2 in the mitochondrion, a critical step during steroidogenesis, depends on mitochondrial fusion. Additionally, we showed that the SHP2 phosphatase, which is required for full steroidogenesis, simultaneously modulates mitochondrial fusion and ERK1/2 localization in the mitochondrion. Strikingly, we found that mitofusin 2 (Mfn2) expression, a central protein for mitochondrial fusion, is upregulated immediately after hormone stimulation. Moreover, Mfn2 knockdown is sufficient to impair steroid biosynthesis. Together, our findings unveil an essential role for mitochondrial fusion during steroidogenesis. These discoveries highlight the importance of organelles’ reorganization in specialized cells, prompting the exploration of the impact that organelle dynamics has on biological processes that include, but are not limited to, steroid synthesis.
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Hanssens S, Salzet M, Vinatier D. [Immunological aspect of pregnancy]. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 41:595-611. [PMID: 22921357 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgyn.2012.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2011] [Revised: 06/22/2012] [Accepted: 07/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Pregnancy is a temporary semi-allograft that survives for nine months. The importance of this event for the survival of the species justifies several tolerance mechanisms that are put into place at the beginning of pregnancy, some of which occur even at the time of implantation. The presence of multiple tolerance mechanisms and the richness of the means employed underline the central importance of the trophoblast. Understanding these mechanisms, and in particular, their integration into an overall scheme, enables the anomalies encountered in certain pathologies of pregnancy to be placed into context. Understanding these mechanisms and their interruption at the end of pregnancy should improve our understanding of disappointing results from current immunological treatments facilitate the implementation of new prophylactic and therapeutic strategies.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND hCG is a wonder. Firstly, because hCG is such an extreme molecule. hCG is the most acidic glycoprotein containing the highest proportion of sugars. Secondly, hCG exists in 5 common forms. Finally, it has so many functions ranging from control of human pregnancy to human cancer. This review examines these molecules in detail. CONTENT These 5 molecules, hCG, sulfated hCG, hyperglycosylated hCG, hCG free beta and hyperglycosylated free beta are produced by placental syncytiotrophoblast cells and pituitary gonadotrope cells (group 1), and by placental cytotrophoblast cells and human malignancies (group 2). Group 1 molecules are both hormones that act on the hCG/LH receptor. These molecules are central to human menstrual cycle and human pregnancy. Group 2 molecules are autocrines, that act by antagonizing a TGF beta receptor. These molecules are critical to all advanced malignancies. CONCLUSIONS The hCG groups are molecules critical to both the molecules of pregnancy or human life, and to the advancement of cancer, or human death.
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