Effects of Long-Term Supplementation of Bovine Colostrum on the Immune System in Young Female Basketball Players. Randomized Trial

An intensive physical exercise program could lead to a decrease in immune system function. Effects of long-term supplementation of bovine colostrum on the response of immune function on physical exercise test in athletes were examined. Twenty-seven elite female basketball players (age 16–19) were randomly assigned to either an experimental group or a control group. Eventually, n = 11 athletes completed intervention in the experimental group (3.2 g bovine colostrum orally twice a day for 24 weeks), while n = 9 athletes in the control group were given a placebo. Before the supplementation, after 3 and 6 months, subjects performed the physical exercise stress test. Before, just after, and 3 h after physical exercise testing, blood was drawn and immune system indicators were examined. Plasma interleukin (IL)-1alpha, IL-2, IL-10, IL-13, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha, creatine kinase (CK MM), immunoglobulin G (IgG), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), and WBC, lymphocyte (LYM), monocyte (MON), and granulocyte (GRA) were measured. A statistically significant change in IL-10 in response to the exercise program during the supplementation period in both groups was observed (p = 0.01). However, the results of the rest of the comparisons were statistically insignificant (p > 0.05). Contrary to our initial hypothesis, there were no significant effects of bovine supplementation on the dynamics of immune system function indicators.

Diagnosis and Management of Immune-Mediated Myopathies

Immune-mediated myopathies (IMMs) are a heterogeneous group of acquired muscle disorders characterized by muscle weakness, elevated creatine kinase levels, and myopathic electromyographic findings. Most IMMs feature the presence of inflammatory infiltrates in muscle. However, the inflammatory exudate may be absent. Indeed, necrotizing autoimmune myopathy (NAM), also called immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy, is characterized by a necrotizing pathologic process with no or minimal inflammation in muscle. The recent discovery of antibodies associated with specific subtypes of autoimmune myopathies has played a major role in characterizing these diseases. Although diagnostic criteria and classification of IMMs currently are under revision, on the basis of the clinical and muscle histopathologic findings, IMMs can be differentiated as NAM, inclusion body myositis (IBM), dermatomyositis, polymyositis, and nonspecific myositis. Because of recent developments in the field of NAM and IBM and the controversies around polymyositis, this review will focus on NAM, IBM, and dermatomyositis.

Antibody cross-reactivity and the viral aetiology of type 1 diabetes

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is caused by the destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic β cells by the patient's immune system. While the underlying genetics and immunopathology are fairly well characterized, the environmental trigger remains unidentified. Numerous studies have centred on the role of enteroviruses as aetiological factors that could initiate or accelerate T1D development. The most convincing evidence to date consists of an array of reports documenting the presence of enteroviral nucleic acids in peripheral blood at diagnosis. A prominent hypothesis is that enteroviruses may infect the pancreatic islets and thus be responsible for the islet-specific up-regulation of MHC class I that is commonly observed, possibly enabling T cell recognition and cytotoxicity. Past immunohistochemical studies have indeed shown that antibodies binding the enteroviral capsid protein VP1 preferentially stain the pancreatic β cells from diabetic individuals. New data now indicate that the VP1 antibody used in these studies cross-reacts with mitochondrial proteins.

Monoclonal antibody FsC-47 against carp sperm creatine kinase

The enzyme creatine kinase (CK) plays a key role in energy homeostasis of cells with high and fluctuating energy requirements. As for spermatozoa, the activity of phosphocreatine shuttle, which directs energy from the mitochondria to sites of ATP consumption, is dependent on individual species. High activities of CK are observed in spermatozoa of nonvertebrate, fish, and birds, contrary to the low-level CK activity in mammalian spermatozoa. A new monoclonal antibody (MAb) to carp sperm creatine kinase was prepared. This antibody is applicable to large-scale immunochemical techniques. In this study, it was applied to the study of carp sperm motility, and the evaluation of the influence of CK on the quality and fertilization ability of carp spermatozoa.

Immunological and physical comparison of monomeric and dimeric phosphagen kinases: Some evolutionary implications

The antigenic and physical properties of several representative invertebrate phosphagen kinases have been examined in order to further characterize the relationship between taxonomic assignment, quaternary protein structure and evolution of this class of enzymes. Antibodies against dimeric arginine kinase from the sea cucumber cross-reacted with dimeric arginine kinase purified from sea urchin eggs, but failed to react with extracts from any species known to contain monomeric arginine kinase. However, strong immunoreactivity was observed when antibodies against purified dimeric arginine kinase were reacted with pure creatine kinase from the human muscle (CK-MM) and brain (CK-BB) as well as extracts from several species known to contain dimeric creatine kinase. Of particular interest with regard to evolution of the phosphagen kinases, we confirm the presence of creatine kinase activity in the very primitive sponge Tethya aurnatium and detect a reaction with antibodies against dimeric, but not monomeric, arginine kinase. This observation is consistent with recent studies of phosphagen kinase evolution. Substrate utilization was very specific with creatine kinase using only creatine. Arginine kinase catalyzed phosphorylation of arginine but enzymes from several species could also phosphorylate canavanine. No activities were detected with d-arginine. Isoelectric points, evaluated for several pure arginine kinases suggest that generally the monomeric forms are more acidic than the dimeric proteins. Heat inactivation of arginine kinase in several species indicated a wide range of stabilities, which did not appear to be correlated with quaternary structure, but rather distinguished by the organism's environment. On the other hand, homodimeric arginine kinase proteins from species inhabiting disparate environments are sufficiently homologous to form a catalytically active hybrid.

Development of monoclonal antibodies against creatine kinase MB2

An increase of creatine kinase MB (CKMB) in serum has long been used as a marker for acute myocardial infarction (AMI). It is important with an early diagnosis and since the amount of the CKMB2 isoform rises above reference levels much earlier than the total creatine kinase amount, quantification of CKMB isoforms could be a feasible alternative for early analysis. The two CKMB isoforms differ by only one C-terminal lysine residue, which makes it difficult to separate one from the other. To overcome this problem, monoclonal antibodies were produced using unique peptides as antigen in hybridoma technology. Two peptides with 16 and 15 amino acids corresponding to the C-terminal end of the M-subunits of CKMB2 and CKMB1, respectively, were conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanin and used as antigens. Sixteen different monoclonal antibodies to these peptides were obtained and characterized. Their specificity was analyzed by immunoassay and 10 of the antibodies showed cross-reactive binding to creatine kinase. Surface plasmon resonance based biosensor analysis was used to determine affinity and kinetics towards the peptides and the epitopes of four of the antibodies were studied by means of phage display. Some of these antibodies have binding properties that might qualify them for use in the establishment of procedures allowing early diagnosis of AMI.

Exercise immunology: a skeletal muscle perspective

When exploring the possible mechanisms by which adaptation to physical exercise can occur, the immune system appears to be a likely candidate of importance, because physical exercise will exert both systemic and local effects on the immune system. This review will focus on the immune system in the perspective of skeletal muscle tissue adaptation to physical exercise. The involvement of circulating and tissue bound leukocytes, cytokines, hormones and growth factors will be discussed. A few new hypotheses are presented: 1) The primary mechanism governing skeletal muscle adaptation to physical exercise is suggested to be of non-inflammatory origin; 2) it is suggested that IL-10 may function as one of the signals transmitted by skeletal muscle cells when substrate levels are low; 3) creatine kinase could have immuno-modulatory actions, thereby serving as a messenger molecule between skeletal muscles and the immune system. Based on the intricate and complex array of events governing life and death in other cells types, a simple explanation of the issues of skeletal muscle development, regeneration and adaptation is unlikely. There are large individual differences in the immune response to the same relative or absolute exercise intensity, suggesting that interpreting the average effect of exercise on a group of individuals may not reveal the cause and effect of any given immunological variable. More sophisticated analyses of collected data is suggested in future studies and perhaps some re-evaluation of existing data is also needed. If we can understand the mechanisms behind muscle adaptation, we can also optimize training programs and athletic performance.

Isoenzyme-directed selection and characterization of anti-creatine kinase single chain Fv antibodies from a human phage display library

Epitopes differing among isoenzymes of creatine kinase (CK) are apparently limited in number and poorly immunogenic in vivo. Especially for the BB-CK isoenzyme, very few monoclonal antibodies (mAb) are available. Here, we use in vitro selection with a synthetic human phage display antibody library and develop isoenzyme competition and peptide panning strategies to obtain human single chain Fv (scFv) antibodies against specific CK isoenzymes. We isolated and characterized seven scFv clones that recognize native as well as denatured cytosolic BB-CK in ELISA, immunoblot, immunofluorescence histochemistry and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy. To a variable but minor degree, they also react with cytosolic MM-CK, but not with mitochondrial CK isoenzymes. Epitope mapping revealed that the scFv antibodies recognize different BB-CK epitopes, including the N-terminus and the isoenzyme-specific box, a highly conserved sequence of unknown function for which no mAb were available so far. With a K(D) of 3.5-9.6 x 10(-7) M, the isolated scFv compare favorably with mouse mAb and may overcome certain of their limitations. Our results demonstrate the advantages of in vitro antibody selection for the generation of isoenzyme-specific antibodies.

Designing gene therapy vectors: avoiding immune responses by using tissue-specific promoters

Attempts to correct genetic disorders by gene therapy have been hindered by various problems including unwanted immune responses against the gene product. It has been shown that immune responses with DNA vaccines after i.m. injection of antigen-encoding plasmid DNA are primed solely by professional antigen-presenting cells (APC), even though myocytes are the primary type of cell transfected. This possibly involves direct transfection of some APC in regional lymph nodes draining the injected muscle. Here we have used plasmid DNA vaccines that express hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) to evaluate the possibility of abrogating these immune responses by use of a tissue-specific promoter that does not drive expression in APC. We show that HBsAg-specific humoral or cell-mediated responses are not induced in mice when the muscle-specific human muscle creatine kinase promoter is used in place of the ubiquitous cytomegaloviral promoter to drive expression of HBsAg. This may have significance in the field of gene therapy where one aims to achieve stable expression of the desired gene product without interference from the host immune response.

Expression of mouse anticreatine kinase (MAK33) monoclonal antibody in the yeast Hansenula polymorpha

The methylotrophic yeast Hansenula polymorpha HM1-39 (ura 3 and leu 2) was used as a host strain for the expression of the Fab fragment of the MAK33 monoclonal antibody. The MAK33 antibody reacts specifically with creatine kinase-M. The cDNA of kappa and gamma chains were inserted between the FMD or MOX promoter and the MOX terminator within the expression plasmids. In addition, the secretion signal sequence of the mating factor-alpha (prepro segment) and a fragment from glucoamylase with its secretion signal peptide, were also inserted in the expression plasmids for efficient secretion and production of the MAK33 monoclonal antibody. The co-expression of kappa and gamma chains was achieved by double transformation with kappa and then with gamma chain-expressing plasmids. The cells of H. polymorpha HM1-39 showed high mitotic stability and both uracil+ and leucine+ phenotypic stability after double transformation. Northern analysis showed a high rate of transcription of either kappa or gamma chain mRNA but not both, when the cells were grown in an induction medium. Protein analysis of double-transformed cells showed the monomers of the MAK33 antibody (kappa and gamma chains) were not assembled into a heterodimeric functional form. The expressed proteins of light and heavy chains represent about 11-12% of total cell protein and are found more inside than outside the cell. The expressed monomers show antigen-binding affinity in the Ouchterlony diffusion test; and the binding activity exhibited by cell-free extract was more than that of the cell culture supernatant.

The crystal structure of the fab fragment of the monoclonal antibody MAK33. Implications for folding and interaction with the chaperone bip

The Fab fragment of the murine monoclonal antibody, MAK33, directed against human creatine kinase of the muscle-type, was crystallized and the three-dimensional structure was determined to 2.9 A. The antigen-binding surface of MAK33 shows a convex overall shape typical for immunoglobulins binding large antigens. The structure allows us to analyze the environment of cis-prolyl-peptide bonds whose isomerization is of key importance in the folding process. These residues seem to be involved with not only domain stability but also seem to play a role in the association of heavy and light chains, reinforcing the importance of beta-strand recognition in antibody assembly. The structure also allows the localization of segments of primary sequence postulated to represent binding sites for the ER-specific chaperone BiP within the context of the entire Fab fragment. These sequences are found primarily in beta-strands that are necessary for interactions between the individual domains.

Posttransplantation relapse of FSGS is characterized by glomerular epithelial cell transdifferentiation

This study examined six cases of idiopathic nephrotic syndrome with primary lesions of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) that relapsed after renal transplantation. The glomerular lesions comprised the cellular, the collapsing, and the scar variants of FSGS and showed shedding of large round cells into Bowman's space and within the tubular lumens. Immunohistochemistry and confocal laser microscopy carried out on kidneys with FSGS relapse disclosed several phenomena. (1) Some podocytes that expressed podocalyxin, synaptopodin, and glomerular epithelial protein-1 were detached from the tuft and were free in the urinary space. (2) In the cellular variant, most podocytes had lost podocyte-specific epitopes (podocalyxin, synaptopodin, glomerular epithelial protein-1, Wilm's tumor protein-1, complement receptor-1, and vimentin). In the scar variant, these podocyte markers were absent from cobblestone-like epithelial cells and from pseudotubules. (3) Podocytes had acquired expression of various cytokeratins (CK; identified by the AE1/AE3, C2562, CK22, and AEL-KS2 monoclonal antibodies) that were not found in the podocytes of control glomeruli. Parietal epithelial cells expressed AE1/AE3 CK that were faintly, if ever, found on the parietal epithelial cells of normal glomeruli. (4) Numerous cells located at the periphery of the tuft or free in Bowman's space and within tubular lumens expressed macrophagic epitopes (identified by PGM1 [CD68], HAM56, and 25F9 monoclonal antibodies). These macrophage-like cells expressed the activation epitopes HLA-DR and CD16. (5) A number of these cells coexpressed podocalyxin + AE1/AE3 CK, podocalyxin + CD68, and CD68 + AE1/AE3. These findings suggest that in primary FSGS relapsing on transplanted kidneys, some "dysregulated" podocytes, occasionally some parietal epithelial cells, and possibly some tubular epithelial cells undergo a process of transdifferentiation. This process of transdifferentiation was especially striking in podocytes that acquired macrophagic and CK epitopes that are absent from normal adult and fetal podocytes.

Structure of an intermediate in the unfolding of creatine kinase

The homodimeric muscle isoform of creatine kinase (MM-CK) unfolds on exposure to low levels of guanidinium chloride (GdmCl) to yield a partly folded monomeric intermediate. Those regions of MM-CK that experience local unfolding were previously identified through an extensive study of antibody accessibility and protease sensitivity. Since these studies were completed, the coordinates of the rabbit isoform (MM-CK) were released. In light of this, we have determined the minimum changes to this structure required to explain our data on protease and epitope accessibility in the intermediate. We propose that the observed changes occur through (a) disruption of the monomer-monomer interface during dissociation, (b) separation and/ or unfolding of domains or subdomains, and (c) the partial unfolding of solvent-exposed helices. The proposed structure for the intermediate is consistent both with current models of unfolding intermediates and the results of independent studies pertaining to the unfolding of creatine kinase. Proteins 2001;42:269-278.

Autoantibodies in the sera of patients with rheumatic heart disease: characterization of myocardial antigens by two-dimensional immunoblotting and N-terminal sequence analysis

The concept of antigenic mimicry in autoimmune diseases such as rheumatic fever has been under investigation for decades and the range of cross-reactive tissue antigens for streptococcal-induced antibodies identified in rheumatic heart disease is still expanding. To identify heart tissue-reactive antigens which may be implicated in the secondary immunopathogenesis of rheumatic fever, sera from 56 patients with acute rheumatic heart disease were probed in two-dimensional Western blots for reactivity against heart tissue antigens. After two-dimensional immunoblot analysis, proteins were submitted to N-terminal amino acid sequence analysis. This analysis identified creatine kinase, two mitochondrial proteins and, at a low level, various stress proteins as cross-reactive myocardial antigens. Therefore, in addition to myosin, creatine kinase may represent another major antigen for autoreactive antibodies in rheumatic heart disease. Mitochondrial proteins have been implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory heart disease for some years, and in this study we have identified two mitochondrial proteins as relevant antigens in rheumatic heart disease.

Multiple-analyte fluoroimmunoassay using an integrated optical waveguide sensor

A silicon oxynitride integrated optical waveguide was used to evanescently excite fluorescence from a multianalyte sensor surface in a rapid, sandwich immunoassay format. Multiple analyte immunoassay (MAIA) results for two sets of three different analytes, one employing polyclonal and the other monoclonal capture antibodies, were compared with results for identical analytes performed in a single-analyte immunoassay (SAIA) format. The MAIA protocol was applied in both phosphate-buffered saline and simulated serum solutions. Point-to-point correlation values between the MAIA and SAIA results varied widely for the polyclonal antibodies (R2 = 0.42-0.98) and were acceptable for the monoclonal antibodies (R2 = 0.93-0.99). Differences in calculated receptor affinities were also evident with polyclonal antibodies, but not so with monoclonal antibodies. Polyclonal antibody capture layers tended to demonstrate departure from ideal receptor-ligand binding while monoclonal antibodies generally displayed monovalent binding. A third set of three antibodies, specific for three cardiac proteins routinely used to categorize myocardial infarction, were also evaluated with the two assay protocols. MAIA responses, over clinically significant ranges for creatin kinase MB, cardiac troponin I, and myoglobin agreed well with responses generated with SAIA protocols (R2 = 0.97-0.99).

Oxidative myocytes of heart and skeletal muscle express abundant sarcomeric mitochondrial creatine kinase

Sarcomeric mitochondrial creatine kinase catalyzes the reversible transfer of a high energy phosphate between ATP and creatine. To study cellular distribution of the kinase, we performed immunocytochemical studies using a peptide antiserum specific for the kinase protein. Our results demonstrated that the sarcomeric mitochondrial creatine kinase gene is abundantly expressed in heart and skeletal muscle, with no protein detected in other tissues examined, including brain, lung, liver, spleen, kidney, bladder, testis, stomach, intestine, and colon. RNA blot study showed that there is no detectable expression of the kinase mRNA in the thymus gland. In heart and skeletal muscle, the kinase protein is expressed in atrial and ventricular cardiomyocytes and a subpopulation of skeletal myofibres. In skeletal muscle, fast myosin heavy chain co-localization studies demonstrated that the sarcomeric mitochondrial creatine kinase is highly expressed in type 1, slow-oxidative and type 2A, fast-oxidative-glycolytic myofibres. We conclude that the kinase gene is abundantly expressed in oxidative myocytes of heart and skeletal muscle and may contribute to oxidative capacity of these cells.

Adriamycin-induced changes of creatine kinase activity in vivo and in cardiomyocyte culture

Adriamycin (ADM) is an anthracycline anti-neoplastic agent, whose clinical effectiveness is limited by severe side effects, including cardiotoxicity. The toxic effects of ADM are likely to be the consequence of the generation of free radicals. This study demonstrates that ADM induces significant changes in the activity of the oxidative sensitive enzyme creatine kinase (CK) in the heart in vivo and in a cardiomyocyte culture model. The changes observed are likely to reflect the ability of ADM to damage the plasma membrane of cardiac cells and to induce the direct inactivation of CK. The role for ADM-derived free radicals is one of the possible mechanisms for the CK inactivation observed during the ADM treatment.

Accumulation pattern of IgG antibodies and Fab fragments in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plants

For the further optimization of antibody expression in plants, it is essential to determine the final accumulation sites of plant-made antibodies. Previously, we have shown that, upon secretion, IgG antibodies and Fab fragments can be detected in the intercellular spaces of leaf mesophyll cells of transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plants. However, immunofluorescence microscopy showed that this is probably not their final accumulation site. In leaves, IgG and Fab fragments accumulate also at the interior side of the epidermal cell layers and in xylem vessels. These accumulation sites correspond with the leaf regions where water of the transpiration stream is entering a space impermeable to the proteins or where water is evaporating. In roots, plant-made Fab fragments accumulate in intercellular spaces of cortex cells, in the cytoplasm of pericycle and, to a lesser extent, endodermis cells, and in cells of the vascular cylinder. In other words, antibody accumulation occurs at the sites where water passes on its radial pathway towards and within the vascular bundle. Taken together, our results suggest that, upon secretion of plant-made antibodies or Fab fragments, a large proportion of these proteins are transported in the apoplast of A. thaliana, possibly by the water flow in the transpiration stream.

Myofibrillar interaction of cytosolic creatine kinase (CK) isoenzymes: allocation of N-terminal binding epitope in MM-CK and BB-CK

The molecular origin of the isoenzyme-specific interaction of cytosolic creatine kinase isoenzymes, muscle-type creatine kinase and brain-type creatine kinase, with myofibrillar structures has been studied by confocal microscopy in an functional in situ binding assay with chemically skinned, unfixed skeletal muscle fibers using wild-type and chimeric creatine kinase isoproteins. The specific interaction of both wild-type isoforms with the sarcomeric structure resulted in a stable, isoform-characteristic labeling pattern with muscle-type creatine kinase bound exclusively and tightly to the sarcomeric M-band while brain-type creatine kinase was confined to the I-band region. Chimeric proteins of both muscle-type and brain-type creatine kinases were constructed to localize the corresponding binding domain(s). Exchanged domains included the N-terminal part (residues 1–234), the region containing an isoenzyme ‘diagnostic box’ (residues 235–285) and the C-terminal part (residues 286–380). The purified recombinant proteins were all fully intact and enzymatically active. All chimeric proteins containing the N-terminal region (amino acid 1–234) of muscle-type or brain-type creatine kinase were always specifically targeted to the sarcomeric M-band or I-band, respectively. We therefore propose that the relevant epitope(s), determining the isoenzyme-specific targeting in skeletal muscle, are entirely located within the N-terminal regions of both cytosolic creatine kinase isoforms.