The link between ancient microbial fluoride resistance mechanisms and bioengineering organofluorine degradation or synthesis

Fluorinated organic chemicals, such as per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) and fluorinated pesticides, are both broadly useful and unusually long-lived. To combat problems related to the accumulation of these compounds, microbial PFAS and organofluorine degradation and biosynthesis of less-fluorinated replacement chemicals are under intense study. Both efforts are undermined by the substantial toxicity of fluoride, an anion that powerfully inhibits metabolism. Microorganisms have contended with environmental mineral fluoride over evolutionary time, evolving a suite of detoxification mechanisms. In this perspective, we synthesize emerging ideas on microbial defluorination/fluorination and fluoride resistance mechanisms and identify best approaches for bioengineering new approaches for degrading and making organofluorine compounds.

TBAF-Mediated [3+1] Cycloaddition of Difluorocarbene to Access gem-Difluorinated 1,2-Diazetidine Analogues as Potent Anticancer Agents

The facile synthesis of gem-difluorinated 1,2-diazetidines was achieved by metal-free [3+1] annulation between C,N-cyclic azomethine imines with difluorocarbene. A library of 30 compounds benefiting from the TBAF-mediated cyclization process could be directly assembled in moderate to good yield under mild conditions. A plausible mechanism involving the difluorocarbene pathway was proposed based on carbene trapping and control experiments. Many compounds exhibited dramatic antiproliferative activity in 4T1, A549, and HeLa tumor cell lines.

T0901317, a liver X receptor agonist, ameliorates perinatal white matter injury induced by ischemia and hypoxia in neonatal rats

Perinatal white matter injury (PWMI) can lead to permanent neurological damage in preterm infants and bring a huge economic burden to their families and society. Liver X receptors (LXRs) are transcription factors that have been confirmed to mediate the myelination process under physiological conditions and are involved in regulating neurogenesis in adult animal models of acute and chronic cerebral ischemia. However, the role of LXRs in PWMI induced by both ischemic and hypoxic stimulation in the immature brain has not been reported. Herein, we investigated the role of LXRs in a neonatal rat model of white matter loss after hypoxia-ischemia (HI) injury through intraperitoneal injection of the LXR agonist T0901317 (T09) 1 day before and 15 min postinjury. The in vivo data showed that T09 treatment significantly facilitated myelination and ameliorated neurological behavior after PWMI. Moreover, T09 enhanced the proliferation of oligodendrocyte lineage cells and reduced microgliosis and astrogliosis in the microenvironment for oligodendrocytes (OLs), maintaining a healthy microenvironment for myelinating OLs. In vitro data suggested that the expression of the myelin-related genes Plp and Cnpase was increased in OLN-93 cells after T09 intervention compared with OLN-93 cells injured by oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD). In primary mixed astrocytes/microglia cells, T09 also reduced the expression of Il6, Cox2, Tnfa and Il10 that was induced by OGD. Mechanistically, the mRNA expression level and the protein level of ATP binding cassette subfamily A member 1 (Abca1) decreased after HI injury, and the protective effect of T09 might be related to the activation of the LXRβ-ABCA1 signaling pathway. Our study revealed the protective role of LXRs in myelination and white matter homeostasis, providing a potential therapeutic option for PWMI.

Activity and Point Mutation G699V in PcoORP1 Confer Resistance to Oxathiapiprolin in Phytophthora colocasiae Field Isolates

The oxysterol-binding protein inhibitor oxathiapiprolin is a new fungicide for controlling oomycetes diseases. Besides, laboratory mutagenesis oxathiapiprolin-resistance among phytopathogenic oomycetes in the field remains unknown. Here, the sensitivity of 97 P. colocasiae isolates to oxathiapiprolin was examined that were collected between 2011 and 2016. We obtained a baseline sensitivity with a mean EC₅₀ value of 5.2639 × 10^-4 μg mL^-1. We showed that 6/32 isolates collected in Fujian Province from 2019 to 2020 were resistant to oxathiapiprolin without a significant fitness penalty on sporulation, vegetative growth, and virulence of the field isolates. The oxathiapiprolin resistance field isolates contained the point mutation glycine to valine at 699 in PcoORP1. The point mutation G699V was verified to confer resistance of P. colocasiae to oxathiapiprolin using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. The mutation G699V decreased the binding affinity between oxathiapiprolin and PcoORP1. These results will improve our understanding of the mechanism of P. colocasiae resistance to oxathiapiprolin under field conditions.

Effect of liver X receptor agonist TO901317 on cognitive function in APP/PS1 double transgenic mice with Alzheimers disease and the underlying mechanism

OBJECTIVES

The liver X receptors (LXRs) are members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily, and LXR-β is an important receptor for cholesterol content in brain cells. LXR-β/retinoic X receptor (RXR-α)/ATP binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) cholesterol transmembrane transport system is closely related to the occurrence and development of Alzheimer's disease (AD). LXR agonist TO901317 can affect the accumulation of β- amyloid protein in the brain tissue of APP/PS1 double transgenic AD mice. However, the molecular mechanism is not clarified in detail. This study aims to evaluate the effects of LXR agonist TO901317 on the cognitive function of AD mice fed with high cholesterol diet, and to explore its possible mechanism from the perspective of cholesterol metabolism.

METHODS

Twenty four male 6-month-old APP/PS1 double transgenic AD mice were randomly divided into 4 groups, 6 mice in each group: a control group (fed with normal diet), a cholesterol rich diet (CRD) group, a TO901317 group (fed with CRD combined with TO901317), and a GSK2033 group (fed with CRD combined with TO901317 and LXR antagonist GSK2033). The mice were fed with pellet feed made of high cholesterol feed, mixed with lard, egg yolk powder, and cod liver oil twice a day. TO901317 and GSK2033 were dissolved and diluted to a final concentration at 0.03%. The drugs were given to the mice daily through gastric tube according to their body weight. Meanwhile, the mice in the drug group were fed with high cholesterol diet . After feeding for 3 months, Morris water maze was used to observe the changes of spatial exploration and memory ability of AD mice in each group. The contents of TC, LDL, and HDL in serum of mice in each group were detected by cholesterol enzyme colorimetry, and the differences among the groups were compared. The expression of Aβ42 in the brain of AD mice was detected by ELISA. Western blotting was used to detect the protein levels of LXR-β, RXR-α, ABCA1, and Caveolin-1 in the brain of each group.

RESULTS

Morris water maze results showed that the times, distance and the duration of mice crossing the platform in the CRD group were significantly decreased compared with the control group (all P<0.05), while these three figures in TO901317 group were significantly increased compared with the CRD group (all P<0.05). Compared with the TO901317 group, there was a decrease of these figures in the GSK2033 group (all P<0.05). The serum TC and LDL levels in the CRD group were significantly higher than those in the control group, while HDL levels were significantly lower (all P<0.001). The figures of the TC and LDL contents level in the TO901317 group were lower than those in the CRD group, while HDL levels were higher (all P<0.001). Compared with TO901317 group, the contents of the TC and LDL in GSK2033 group were significantly increased, while HDL content was significantly decreased (all P<0.001). ELISA results showed that the production of Aβ42 peptides in the brain of CRD group was the highest while the content in the TO901317 group was significantly decreased (P<0.001), which was the lowest among the groups. The figure in the control group was close to the GSK2033 group. Western blotting results showed that the protein levels of LXR-β, RXR-α, and ABCA1 in the CRD group were significantly decreased compared with the control group, but the protein level of Caveolin-1 was increased (all P<0.01). After TO901317 treatment, the protein levels of LXR-β, RXR-α and ABCA1 were significantly increased, while the protein level of Caveolin-1 was decreased partially (all P<0.001). In the GSK2033 group, the effect of TO901317 on AD mice was partially reversed by GSK2033. Compared to TO901317 group, the protein levels of LXR-β, RXR-α, and ABCA1 showed a decrease trend, while the protein level of Caveolin-1 showed an increase state (all P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

High cholesterol diet leads to severer spatial exploration, learning and memory impairment in transgenic AD mice, while the LXR agonist TO901317 attenuates this effect. The mechanism may be that TO901317 promotes cholesterol efflux by activating LXR-β/RXR-α/ABCA1 transmembrane transport system, reduces the expression of Caveolin-1, improves the composition of lipid raft, and ultimately reduces the production of Aβ42 in the brain.

Capillary hemodynamics and contracting skeletal muscle oxygen pressures in male rats with heart failure: Impact of soluble guanylyl cyclase activator

In heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), nitric oxide-soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) pathway dysfunction impairs skeletal muscle arteriolar vasodilation and thus capillary hemodynamics, contributing to impaired oxygen uptake (V̇O2) kinetics. Targeting this pathway with sGC activators offers a new treatment approach to HFrEF. We tested the hypotheses that sGC activator administration would increase the O2 delivery (Q̇O2)-to-V̇O2 ratio in the skeletal muscle interstitial space (PO2is) of HFrEF rats during twitch contractions due, in part, to increases in red blood cell (RBC) flux (fRBC), velocity (VRBC), and capillary hematocrit (Hctcap). HFrEF was induced in male Sprague-Dawley rats via myocardial infarction. After 3 weeks, rats were treated with 0.3 mg/kg of the sGC activator BAY 60-2770 (HFrEF + BAY; n = 11) or solvent (HFrEF; n = 9) via gavage b.i.d for 5 days prior to phosphorescence quenching (PO2is, in contracting muscle) and intravital microscopy (resting) measurements in the spinotrapezius muscle. Intravital microscopy revealed higher fRBC (70 ± 9 vs 25 ± 8 RBC/s), VRBC (490 ± 43 vs 226 ± 35 μm/s), Hctcap (16 ± 1 vs 10 ± 1%) and a greater number of capillaries supporting flow (91 ± 3 vs 82 ± 3%) in HFrEF + BAY vs HFrEF (all P < 0.05). Additionally, PO2is was especially higher during 12-34s of contractions in HFrEF + BAY vs HFrEF (P < 0.05). Our findings suggest that sGC activators improved resting Q̇O2 via increased fRBC, VRBC, and Hctcap allowing for better Q̇O2-to-V̇O2 matching during the rest-contraction transient, supporting sGC activators as a potential therapeutic to target skeletal muscle vasomotor dysfunction in HFrEF.

Characterization of an aromatic trifluoromethyl ketone as a new warhead for covalently reversible kinase inhibitor design

An aromatic trifluoromethyl ketone moiety was characterized as a new warhead for covalently reversible kinase inhibitor design to target the non-catalytic cysteine residue. Potent and selective covalently reversible inhibitors of FGFR4 kinase were successfully designed and synthesized by utilizing this new warhead. The binding mode of a representative inhibitor was fully characterized by using multiple technologies including MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, dialysis assay and X-ray crystallographic studies etc. This functional group was also successfully applied to discovery of a new JAK3 inhibitor, suggesting its potential application in designing other kinase inhibitors.

Structural Biology-Based Exploration of Subtype-Selective Agonists for Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors

Progress in understanding peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) subtypes as nuclear receptors that have pleiotropic effects on biological responses has enabled the exploration of new subtype-selective PPAR ligands. Such ligands are useful chemical biology/pharmacological tools to investigate the functions of PPARs and are also candidate drugs for the treatment of PPAR-mediated diseases, such as metabolic syndrome, inflammation and cancer. This review summarizes our medicinal chemistry research of more than 20 years on the design, synthesis, and pharmacological evaluation of subtype-selective PPAR agonists, which has been based on two working hypotheses, the ligand superfamily concept and the helix 12 (H12) holding induction concept. X-ray crystallographic analyses of our agonists complexed with each PPAR subtype validate our working hypotheses.

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of CF3 Se-Substituted α-Amino Acid Derivatives

Several CF₃ Se-substituted α-amino acid derivatives, such as (R)-2-amino-3-((trifluoromethyl)selanyl)propanoates (5 a/6 a), (S)-2-amino-4-((trifluoromethyl)selanyl)butanoates (5 b/6 b), (2R,3R)-2-amino-3-((trifluoromethyl)selanyl)butanoates (5 c/6 c), (R)-2-((S)-2-amino-3-phenylpropanamido)-3-((trifluoromethyl)selanyl)propanoates (11 a/12 a), and (R)-2-(2-aminoacetamido)-3-((trifluoromethyl)selanyl)propanoates (11 b/12 b), were readily synthesized from natural amino acids and [Me₄ N][SeCF₃ ]. The primary in vitro cytotoxicity assays revealed that compounds 6 a, 11 a and 12 a were more effective cell growth inhibitors than the other tested CF₃ Se-substituted derivatives towards MCF-7, HCT116, and SK-OV-3 cells, with their IC₅₀ values being less than 10 μM for MCF-7 and HCT116 cells. This study indicated the potentials of CF₃ Se moiety as a pharmaceutically relevant group in the design and synthesis of novel biologically active molecules.

Histone Deacetylase 1 Reduces Lipogenesis by Suppressing SREBP1 Transcription in Human Sebocyte Cell Line SZ95

Proper regulation of sebum production is important for maintaining skin homeostasis in humans. However, little is known about the role of epigenetic regulation in sebocyte lipogenesis. We investigated histone acetylation changes and their role in key lipogenic gene regulation during sebocyte lipogenesis using the human sebaceous gland cell line SZ95. Sebocyte lipogenesis is associated with a significant increase in histone acetylation. Treatment with anacardic acid (AA), a p300 histone acetyltransferase inhibitor, significantly decreased the lipid droplet number and the expression of key lipogenic genes, including sterol regulatory-binding protein 1 (SREBP1), fatty acid synthase (FAS), and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC). In contrast, treatment with trichostatin A (TSA), a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, increased the expression of these genes. Global HDAC enzyme activity was decreased, and HDAC1 and HDAC2 expression was downregulated during sebaceous lipogenesis. Interestingly, HDAC1 knockdown increased lipogenesis through SREBP1 induction, whereas HDAC1 overexpression decreased lipogenesis and significantly suppressed SREBP1 promoter activity. HDAC1 and SREBP1 levels were inversely correlated in human skin sebaceous glands as demonstrated in immunofluorescence images. In conclusion, HDAC1 plays a critical role in reducing SREBP1 transcription, leading to decreased sebaceous lipogenesis. Therefore, HDAC1 activation could be an effective therapeutic strategy for skin diseases related to excessive sebum production.

Assessment of Clinical Drug-Drug Interactions of Elagolix, a Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptor Antagonist

Elagolix is an oral gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor antagonist indicated for the management of endometriosis-associated pain and in combination with estradiol/norethindrone acetate indicated for the management of heavy menstrual bleeding associated with uterine leiomyomas (fibroids) in premenopausal women. Elagolix coadministered with estradiol/norethindrone acetate is in late-stage development for the management of heavy menstrual bleeding associated with uterine fibroids. Based on the in vitro profile of elagolix metabolism and disposition, 9 drug-drug interaction (DDI) studies evaluating the victim and perpetrator characteristics of elagolix were conducted in 144 healthy volunteers. As a victim of cytochrome P450 (CYPs) and transporter-mediated DDIs, elagolix area under the curve (AUC) increased by ∼2-fold following coadministration with ketoconazole and by ∼5- and ∼2-fold with single and multiple doses of rifampin, respectively. As a perpetrator, elagolix decreased midazolam AUC (90% confidence interval) by 54% (50%-59%) and increased digoxin AUC by 32% (23%-41%). Elagolix decreased rosuvastatin AUC by 40% (29%-50%). No clinically significant changes in exposure on coadministration with sertraline or fluconazole occurred. A elagolix 150-mg once-daily regimen should be limited to 6 months with strong CYP3A inhibitors and rifampin because of the potential increase in bone mineral density loss, as described in the drug label. A 200-mg twice-daily regimen is recommended for no more than 1 month with strong CYP3A inhibitors and not recommended with rifampin. Elagolix is contraindicated with strong organic anion transporter polypeptide B1 inhibitors (eg, cyclosporine and gemfibrozil). Consider increasing the doses of midazolam and rosuvastatin when coadministered with elagolix, and individualize therapy based on patient response. Clinical monitoring is recommended for P-glycoprotein substrates with a narrow therapeutic window (eg, digoxin). Dose adjustments are not required for sertraline, fluconazole, bupropion (or any CYP2B6 substrate), or elagolix when coadministered.

Patterned Piezoelectric Scaffolds for Osteogenic Differentiation

The morphological clues of scaffolds can determine cell behavior and, therefore, the patterning of electroactive polymers can be a suitable strategy for bone tissue engineering. In this way, this work reports on the influence of poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-trifluoroethylene) (P(VDF-TrFE)) electroactive micropatterned scaffolds on the proliferation and differentiation of bone cells. For that, micropatterned P(VDF-TrFE) scaffolds were produced by lithography in the form of arrays of lines and hexagons and then tested for cell proliferation and differentiation of pre-osteoblast cell line. Results show that more anisotropic surface microstructures promote bone differentiation without the need of further biochemical stimulation. Thus, the combination of specific patterns with the inherent electroactivity of materials provides a promising platform for bone regeneration.

Histone H3K9 Demethylase JMJD2B Plays a Role in LXRα-Dependent Lipogenesis

Ligand-activated liver X receptor α (LXRα) upregulates the expression of hepatic lipogenic genes, which leads to triglyceride (TG) accumulation, resulting in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Thus, LXRα regulation may provide a novel therapeutic target against NAFLD. However, histone methylation-mediated epigenetic regulation involved in LXRα-dependent lipogenesis is poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the functional role of the histone demethylase Jumonji domain-containing protein 2B (JMJD2B) in LXRα-dependent lipogenesis. JMJD2B expression level was upregulated in HepG2 cells treated with LXRα agonist T0901317 or palmitate and the liver of mice administered with T0901317 or fed a high-fat diet. Knockdown of JMJD2B using siRNA abrogated T0901317-induced LXRα-dependent lipogenic gene expression and lowered intracellular TG accumulation. Conversely, overexpression of JMJD2B in HepG2 cells upregulated the expression of LXRα-dependent lipogenic genes, in line with increased intracellular TG levels. JMJD2B overexpression or T0901317 treatment induced the recruitment of JMJD2B and LXRα to LXR response elements (LXRE) in the promoter region of LXRα-target gene and reduced the enrichment of H3K9me2 and H3K9me3 in the vicinity of the LXRE. Furthermore, JMJD2B enhanced T0901317 or LXRα-induced transcriptional activities of reporters containing LXRE. A co-immunoprecipitation assay revealed that JMJD2B interacted with activated LXRα. Moreover, overexpression of JMJD2B in mice resulted in upregulation of hepatic LXRα-dependent lipogenic genes, consistent with development of hepatic steatosis. Taken together, these results indicate that JMJD2B plays a role in LXRα-mediated lipogenesis via removing the repressive histone marks, H3K9me2 and H3K9me3, at LXRE, which might contribute to hepatic steatosis.

VD3 and LXR agonist (T0901317) combination demonstrated greater potency in inhibiting cholesterol accumulation and inducing apoptosis via ABCA1-CHOP-BCL-2 cascade in MCF-7 breast cancer cells

Obesity is associated with hypercholesterolemia and is a global epidemic. Epidemiological and animal studies revealed cholesterol is an essential regulator of estrogen receptor positive (ER+) breast cancer progression while inhibition of cholesterol accumulation was found to prevent breast tumor growth. Individually, vitamin D and LXR agonist T0901317 showed anticancer properties. The present study investigated the effects of vitamin D₃ (VD₃, calcitriol), LXR agonist (T0901317) and a combination of VD₃ + T0901317 on cholesterol metabolism and cancer progression in ER+ breast cancer (MCF-7) cells. VD₃ or T0901317 alone reduced cholesterol accumulation significantly in MCF-7 cells concomitant with an induction of ABCA1 protein and gene expression compared to the control treatment. Most importantly, VD₃ + T0901317 combination showed higher effects in reducing cholesterol levels and increasing ABCA1 protein and gene expression compared to individual treatments. Importantly, VD₃ + T0901317 combination showed higher effects in increasing apoptosis as measured by annexin apoptosis assay, cell viability and was associated with induction of CHOP protein and gene expression. Additionally, the VD₃ + T0901317 exerted higher effects in reducing antiapoptotic BCL-2 while increased pro-apoptotic BAX gene expression compared to the individual treatments. The present results suggest that VD₃ and T0901317 combination may have an important therapeutic application to prevent obesity and hyperlipidemia mediated ER+ breast cancer progression.

Discovery of a Lead Brain-Penetrating Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptor Antagonist with Saturable Binding in Brain

We report the synthesis, radiosynthesis and biological characterisation of two gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor (GnRH-R) antagonists with nanomolar binding affinity. A small library of GnRH-R antagonists was synthesised in 20-67 % overall yield with the aim of identifying a high-affinity antagonist capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier. Binding affinity to rat GnRH-R was determined by autoradiography in competitive-binding studies against [125 I]buserelin, and inhibition constants were calculated by using the Cheng-Prusoff equation. The radioligands were obtained in 46-79 % radiochemical yield and >95 % purity and with a molar activity of 19-38 MBq/nmol by direct nucleophilic radiofluorination. Positron emission tomography imaging in rat under baseline conditions in comparison to pretreatment with a receptor-saturating dose of GnRH antagonist revealed saturable uptake (0.1 %ID/mL) into the brain.

A new strategy for durable control of late blight in potato by a single soil application of an oxathiapiprolin mixture in early season

Root treatment with oxathiapiprolin, benthiavalicarb or their mixture Zorvec-Endavia [ZE (3+7, w/w)] was shown to provide prolonged systemic protection against foliar oomycete pathogens attacking cucumber, tomato and basil. Here we report that these fungicides can effectively protect potato plants against late blight when applied to the soil in which such potato plants are grown. In two field experiments, performed in 2019 and 2020, potato plants grown in 64 L containers were treated with a soil drench of oxathiapiprolin, benthiavalicarb or ZE at 12.5, 25 or 50 mg ai/five plants in a container. Artificial inoculations with Phytophthora infestans revealed that such treated plants were protected against late blight in a dose-dependent manner all along the season. Interestingly, oxathiapiprolin persisted in the treated soil for at least 139 days, providing systemic protection against late blight to the following potato crops grown in that treated soils. Potato plants grown in loess soil in the field were either sprayed or drenched with ZE. Plants treated via the soil were significantly better protected against late blight compared to the plants treated by a spray. The data demonstrate a new strategy for season-long protection of potato against late blight by a single soil application of ZE. The systemic nature of oxathiapiprolin and benthiavalicarb composing ZE assures the translocation to the foliage of two fungicides with different modes of action. This shall minimize the risk of developing resistance against either fungicide in the treated crops.

Theoretical study of fluorinated bioisosteres of organochlorine compounds as effective and eco-friendly pesticides

Chlordane is a worldwide banned organochlorine insecticide because of its hazard to animal and human health. It is also a persistent organic pollutant, which can affect either the soil or the aquatic life. The same applies to other chlorinated cyclodiene insecticides, such as dieldrin and aldrin. In turn, organofluorine compounds have a widespread use in agriculture. Therefore, density functional calculations and docking studies showed that the bioisosteric replacement of chlorines in the above-mentioned compounds by fluorines improves some physicochemical parameters used to estimate the toxicity and environmental risk of these compounds, as well as the ligand-enzyme (GABA_A receptor-chloride channel complex) interactions related to their insecticidal activity. This work is an effort to provide an improved new class of organofluorine pesticides.

Clinical Pharmacology of Elagolix: An Oral Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptor Antagonist for Endometriosis

The clinical pharmacology of elagolix was extensively evaluated in clinical studies in healthy subjects and in women with endometriosis. Elagolix pharmacokinetics (PK) show significant population variability, however they are minimally affected by patients' baseline characteristics and demographics, except for clinically relevant extrinsic and intrinsic factors such as coadministrated strong organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP) 1B1 inhibitors and severe hepatic impairment, which are contraindications for the use of elagolix. These studies enabled a comprehensive understanding of elagolix mechanism of action and the downstream pharmacodynamic (PD) effects on gonadotropin and ovarian hormones, as well as full characterization of the PK/PD (PKPD) relationships of elagolix at various dosages, including the approved 150 mg once daily and 200 mg twice daily dosing regimens for the management of moderate to severe pain associated with endometriosis. Several model-based analyses have contributed to understanding of the benefit-risk profile of elagolix in patients with endometriosis, through characterization of the exposure relationship with responder rates, with changes in bone mineral density over time, as well as the interaction with coadministered drugs. Collectively, these studies and analyses served as supportive evidence for the effectiveness of the approved dosages and provided general dosing instructions of the first approved oral gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor antagonist.

Targeting the NADPH Oxidase-4 and Liver X Receptor Pathway Preserves Schwann Cell Integrity in Diabetic Mice

Diabetes triggers peripheral nerve alterations at a structural and functional level, collectively referred to as diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). This work highlights the role of the liver X receptor (LXR) signaling pathway and the cross talk with the reactive oxygen species (ROS)-producing enzyme NADPH oxidase-4 (Nox4) in the pathogenesis of DPN. Using type 1 diabetic (T1DM) mouse models together with cultured Schwann cells (SCs) and skin biopsies from patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM), we revealed the implication of LXR and Nox4 in the pathophysiology of DPN. T1DM animals exhibit neurophysiological defects and sensorimotor abnormalities paralleled by defective peripheral myelin gene expression. These alterations were concomitant with a significant reduction in LXR expression and increase in Nox4 expression and activity in SCs and peripheral nerves, which were further verified in skin biopsies of patients with T2DM. Moreover, targeted activation of LXR or specific inhibition of Nox4 in vivo and in vitro to attenuate diabetes-induced ROS production in SCs and peripheral nerves reverses functional alteration of the peripheral nerves and restores the homeostatic profiles of MPZ and PMP22. Taken together, our findings are the first to identify novel, key mediators in the pathogenesis of DPN and suggest that targeting LXR/Nox4 axis is a promising therapeutic approach.

Elagolix Suppresses Ovulation in a Dose-Dependent Manner: Results From a 3-Month, Randomized Study in Ovulatory Women

CONTEXT

Elagolix is an oral gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonist recently approved for the treatment of endometriosis-associated pain and being developed for heavy menstrual bleeding associated with uterine fibroids.

OBJECTIVE

The objective was to evaluate the effects of elagolix on ovulation and ovarian sex hormones.

DESIGN AND SETTING

This was a randomized, open-label, multicenter study.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants were healthy ovulatory women aged 18 to 40 years.

INTERVENTIONS

Elagolix was administered orally for 3 continuous 28-day dosing intervals at 100 to 200 mg once daily (QD), 100 to 300 mg twice daily (BID), and 300 mg BID plus estradiol/norethindrone acetate (E2/NETA) 1/0.5 mg QD.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The main outcomes measures were ovulation rates measured by transvaginal ultrasound, progesterone concentrations, and hormone suppression.

RESULTS

Elagolix suppressed ovulation in a dose-dependent manner. The percentage of women who ovulated was highest at 100 mg QD (78%), intermediate at 150 and 200 mg QD and 100 mg BID (47%-57%), and lowest at 200 and 300 mg BID (32% and 27%, respectively). Addition of E2/NETA to elagolix 300 mg BID further suppressed the ovulation rate to 10%. Elagolix also suppressed luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone in a dose-dependent manner, leading to dose-dependent suppression of estradiol and progesterone. Elagolix had no effect on serum biomarker of ovarian reserve, and reduced endometrial thickness compared to the screening cycle.

CONCLUSION

Women being treated with elagolix may ovulate and should use effective methods of contraception. The rate of ovulation was lowest with elagolix 300 mg BID plus E2/NETA 1/0.5 mg QD.

Oxathiapiprolin, a Novel Chemical Inducer Activates the Plant Disease Resistance

Oxathiapiprolin was developed as a specific plant pathogenic oomycete inhibitor, previously shown to have highly curative and protective activities against the pepper Phytophthora blight disease under field and greenhouse tests. Therefore, it was hypothesized that oxathiapiprolin might potentially activate the plant disease resistance against pathogen infections. This study investigated the potential and related mechanism of oxathiapiprolin to activate the plant disease resistance using the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato (Pst) and plant Arabidopsis interaction as the targeted system. Our results showed that oxathiapiprolin could activate the plant disease resistance against Pst DC3000, a non-target pathogen of oxathiapiprolin, in Arabidopsis, tobacco, and tomato plants. Our results also showed the enhanced callose deposition and H2O2 accumulation in the oxathiapiprolin-treated Arabidopsis under the induction of flg22 as the pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) treatment. Furthermore, increased levels of free salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA) were detected in the oxathiapiprolin-treated Arabidopsis plants compared to the mock-treated ones under the challenge of Pst DC3000. Besides, the gene expression results confirmed that at 24 h after the infiltration with Pst DC3000, the oxathiapiprolin-treated Arabidopsis plants had upregulated expression levels of the respiratory burst oxidase homolog D (RBOHD), JA-responsive gene (PDF1.2), and SA-responsive genes (PR1, PR2, and PR5) compared to the control. Taken together, oxathiapiprolin is identified as a novel chemical inducer which activates the plant disease resistance against Pst DC3000 by enhancing the callose deposition, H2O2 accumulation, and hormone SA and JA production.

Critical Role of SREBP-1c Large-VLDL Pathway in Environment-Induced Hypertriglyceridemia of Apo AV Deficiency

Objective- APOA5 variants are strongly associated with hypertriglyceridemia, as well as increased risks of cardiovascular disease and acute pancreatitis. Hypertriglyceridemia in apo AV dysfunction often aggravates by environmental factors such as high-carbohydrate diets or aging. To date, the molecular mechanisms by which these environmental factors induce hypertriglyceridemia are poorly defined, leaving the high-risk hypertriglyceridemia condition undertreated. Previously, we reported that LXR (liver X receptor)-SREBP (sterol regulatory element-binding protein)-1c pathway regulates large-VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein) production induced by LXR agonist. However, the pathophysiological relevance of the finding remains unknown. Approach and Results- Here, we reconstitute the environment-induced hypertriglyceridemia phenotype of human APOA5 deficiency in Apoa5^-/- mice and delineate the role of SREBP-1c in vivo by generating Apoa5^-/- ;Srebp-1c^-/- mice. The Apoa5^-/- mice, which showed moderate hypertriglyceridemia on a chow diet, developed severe hypertriglyceridemia on high-carbohydrate feeding or aging as seen in patients with human apo AV deficiency. These responses were nearly completely abolished in the Apoa5^-/- ;Srebp-1c^-/- mice. Further mechanistic studies revealed that in response to these environmental factors, SREBP-1c was activated to increase triglyceride synthesis and to permit the incorporation of triglyceride into abnormally large-VLDL particles, which require apo AV for efficient clearance. Conclusions- Severe hypertriglyceridemia develops only when genetic factors (apo AV deficiency) and environmental effects (SREBP-1c activation) coexist. We demonstrate that the regulated production of large-sized VLDL particles via SREBP-1c determines plasma triglyceride levels in apo AV deficiency. Our findings explain the long-standing enigma of the late-onset hypertriglyceridemia phenotype of apo AV deficiency and suggest a new approach to treat hypertriglyceridemia by targeting genes that mediate environmental effects.

An Underlying Mechanism of Dual Wnt Inhibition and AMPK Activation: Mitochondrial Uncouplers Masquerading as Wnt Inhibitors

The importance of upregulated Wnt signaling in colorectal cancers led to efforts to develop inhibitors that target β-catenin in this pathway. We now report that several "Wnt inhibitors" that allegedly target β-catenin actually function as mitochondrial proton uncouplers that independently activate AMPK and concomitantly inhibit Wnt signaling. As expected for a process in which mitochondrial uncoupling diminishes ATP production, a mitochondrial proton uncoupler, FCCP, and a glucose metabolic inhibitor, 2-DG, activated AMPK and inhibited Wnt signaling. Also consistent with these findings, a well-known "Wnt inhibitor", FH535, functioned as a proton uncoupler, and in support of this finding, the N-methylated analog, 2,5-dichloro-N-methyl-N-(2-methyl-4-nitrophenyl)benzenesulfonamide (FH535-M), was inactive as an uncoupler and Wnt inhibitor. Apart from suggesting an opportunity to develop dual Wnt inhibitors and AMPK activators, these findings provide a cautionary tale that claims for Wnt inhibition alone require scrutiny as possible mitochondrial proton uncouplers or inhibitors of the electron transport chain.

Rapid Entry into Biologically Relevant α,α-Difluoroalkylphosphonates Bearing Allyl Protection-Deblocking under Ru(II)/(IV)-Catalysis

A convenient synthetic route to α,α-difluoroalkylphosphonates is described. Structurally diverse aldehydes are condensed with LiF2CP(O)(OCH2CH═CH2)2. The resultant alcohols are captured as the pentafluorophenyl thionocarbonates and efficiently deoxygenated with HSnBu3, BEt3, and O2, and then smoothly deblocked with CpRu(IV)(π-allyl)quinoline-2-carboxylate (1-2 mol %) in methanol as an allyl cation scavenger. These mild deprotection conditions provide access to free α,α-difluoroalkylphosphonates in nearly quantitative yield. This methodology is used to rapidly construct new bis-α,α-difluoroalkyl phosphonate inhibitors of PTPIB (protein phosphotyrosine phosphatase-1B).

In-vitro and in-vivo respiratory deposition of a developed metered dose inhaler formulation of an anti-migraine drug

Enhancement of zolmitriptan bioavailability through development of micronized zolmitriptan pressurized metered dose inhaler (MDI) as an alternative to its traditional drug delivery systems. A reversed phase HPLC method for zolmitriptan determination was developed and evaluated. Micronized zolmitriptan MDI formulations were prepared using two different propellants. The prepared formulations were evaluated for mean shot weight, drug content, and leakage rate in addition to in-vitro deposition using next generation impactor where mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD), geometric standard deviation (GSD), fine particle dose, fine particle fraction (FPF), emitted dose (ED), and dispersibility were determined. The selected formulation was evaluated for in-vivo bronchial absorption in rats. The physicochemical characters of the prepared formulations were found to be dependent mainly on the vapor pressure of the used propellant. MDI formulation prepared with HFA 134a propellant was found to have the lowest MMAD (3.47 ± 0.65) with GSD of 2.3 ± 0.4. It also had the highest FPF (41.9), ED (89.26 ± 2.35) with dispersibility of 46.9%. This formulation, when applied to rats, resulted in faster Tmax (27 ± 5 min) with higher Cmax (1236 ± 116 ng/mL) and AUC(0-12) (3375 ± 482 ng/mL·h) over the oral tablet. Its relative bioavailability was 72.7% which was 1.25 times higher than the oral tablet relative bioavailability. Zolmitriptan MDI formulation was developed using micronized zolmitriptan powder without further modification or particle engineering. The developed formulation using HFA 134a propellant could be favorable alternative, with enhanced bioavailability, to zolmitriptan oral tablet for acute migraine treatment.