Simultaneous nutrients and carbon removal from low-strength domestic wastewater with an immobilised-microorganism biological aerated filter

To improve the efficiency of low-strength domestic wastewater treatment, an immobilised-microorganism biological aerated filter (I-BAF) was established for simultaneous carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus removal. The I-BAF performance was systematically evaluated under continuous and intermittent aeration modes. At the optimal condition with an intermittent aeration control schedule of 2 h on/1 h off, the maximum removal rates of COD, NH(4)(+)-N, TN and P were 82.54%, 94.83%, 51.85% and 61.49%, respectively, and the corresponding averaged effluents could meet the first class standards of China. Further analysis of PCR-DGGE profile revealed that members of the gamma and alpha proteobacterium bacterial groups were probably responsible for the nitrogen and phosphorus removal. The I-BAF system showed excellent performance in carbon and nutrients removal, which provided a cost-effective solution for the treatment of low-strength domestic wastewater.

Scale-up of BDD anode system for electrochemical oxidation of phenol simulated wastewater in continuous mode

Scale-up of boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode system is significant to the practical application of electrochemical oxidation in bio-refractory wastewater treatment. In this study, the performance of a smaller BDD anode (24 cm(2)) system in continuous mode electrochemical oxidation of phenol simulated wastewater was first investigated and well described by the response surface methodology (RSM). Furthermore, the RSM was extended to examine the scale-up feasibility of BDD anode systems with similar configurations. It was demonstrated that both COD degradation efficiency and specific energy consumption could be expected at the same level even as the system was enlarged over 100 times, which implied that BDD anode system could be successfully scaled up through controlling the same retention time, current density, initial COD, and conductivity conditions. Based on this study, a larger BDD anode (2904 cm(2)) system was constructed and systematic measurements were made on its performance in electrochemical oxidation of phenol simulated wastewater. Very good agreement was found between measured and predicted results by RSM. At the optimized conditions, the larger BDD anode system could easily reduce the COD of phenol simulated wastewater from 633 mg L(-1) to 145 mg L(-1) (<150 mg L(-1), National Discharge Standard of China) during 80 min with specific energy consumption only 31 kWh kgCOD(-1).

Sludge granulation and performance of a low superficial gas velocity sequencing batch reactor (SBR) in the treatment of prepared sanitary wastewater

A sequencing batch reactor (SBR) employing a low superficial gas velocity was used to produce aerobic granular sludge for wastewater treatment. At a gas velocity of 0.0056 m s(-1) sludge containing a mixture of light yellow and black granules with similar functional groups was quickly formed. The black granules contained crystals of CaCO(3), FeS, and Fe(2)O(3) as well as filamentous bacteria that strengthened the particles and reduced the mass transfer resistance. No inorganic crystals were detected in the yellow sludge granules, and their structure was maintained through cohesion mediated by extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). The light yellow granules were denser and offered better settling performance than the black granules, enhancing the settling properties of the mixed sludge. During a 12-h cycle, the maximum reductions in chemical oxygen demand (COD), NH(3)-N, and total nitrogen (TN) occurred at 240, 480, and 360 min with removal efficiencies of 90%, 90%, and 54%. When the cycle time was limited to 480 min, self-dissolution of the granules was avoided while sill maintaining removal efficiencies for COD, NH(3)-N, and TN of 88%, 90%, and 53%.

Heterotrophic nitrification-aerobic denitrification by novel isolated bacteria

Three novel strains capable of heterotrophic nitrification-aerobic denitrification were isolated from the landfill leachate treatment system. Based on their phenotypic and phylogenetic characteristics, the isolates were identified as Agrobacterium sp. LAD9, Achromobacter sp. GAD3 and Comamonas sp. GAD4, respectively. Batch tests were carried out to evaluate the growth and the ammonia removal patterns. The maximum growth rates as determined from the growth curve were 0.286, 0.228, and 0.433 h(-1) for LAD9, GAD3 and GAD4, respectively. The maximum aerobic nitrification-denitrification rate was achieved by the strain GAD4 of 0.381 mmol/l h, followed by LAD9 of 0.374 mmol/l h and GAD3 of 0.346 mmol/l h. Moreover, hydroxylamine oxidase and periplasmic nitrate reductase were successfully expressed in all the isolates. The relationship between the enzyme activities and the aerobic nitrification-denitrification rates revealed that hydroxylamine oxidation may be the rate-limiting step in the heterotrophic nitrification-aerobic denitrification process. The study results are of great significance to the wastewater treatment systems where simultaneous removal of carbon and nitrogen is desired.

Assessment of flooding impacts in terms of sustainability in Mainland China

An understanding of flood impact in terms of sustainability is vital for long-term disaster risk reduction. This paper utilizes two important concepts: conventional insurance related flood risk for short-term damage by specific flood events, and long-term flood impact on sustainability. The Insurance Related Flood Risk index, IRFR, is defined as the product of the Flood Hazard Index (FHI) and Vulnerability. The Long-term Flood Impact on Sustainability index, LFIS, is the ratio of the flood hazard index to the Sustainable Development Index (SDI). Using a rapid assessment approach, quantitative assessments of IRFR and LFIS are carried out for 2339 counties and cities in mainland China. Each index is graded from 'very low' to 'very high' according to the eigenvalue magnitude of cluster centroids. By combining grades of FHI and SDI, mainland China is then classified into four zones in order to identify regional variations in the potential linkage between flood hazard and sustainability. Zone I regions, where FHI is graded 'very low' or 'low' and SDI is 'medium' to 'very high', are mainly located in western China. Zone II regions, where FHI and SDI are 'medium' or 'high', occur in the rapidly developing areas of central and eastern China. Zone III regions, where FHI and SDI are 'very low' or 'low', correspond to the resource-based areas of western and north-central China. Zone IV regions, where FHI is 'medium' to 'very high' and SDI is 'very low' to 'low', occur in ecologically fragile areas of south-western China. The paper also examines the distributions of IRFR and LFIS throughout mainland China. Although 57% of the counties and cities have low IRFR values, 64% have high LFIS values. The modal values of LFIS are ordered as Zone I<Zone II approximately Zone III<Zone IV; whereas the modal values of IRFR are ordered as Zone I<Zone III<Zone IV<Zone II. It is recommended that present flood risk policies be altered towards a more sustainable flood risk management strategy in areas where LFIS and IRFR vary significantly, with particular attention focused on Zone IV regions, which presently experience poverty and a deteriorating eco-system.

Initial photocatalytic degradation intermediates/pathways of 17alpha-ethynylestradiol: effect of pH and methanol

This study investigated the photocatalytic degradation of the synthetic oral contraceptive 17alpha-ethynylestradiol (EE2). Particular attention was paid on the effects of pH and the co-solvent methanol on the degradation intermediates of EE2. Twelve intermediates were identified, and several intermediates reported herein have not been found in previous studies. The degradation efficiency of EE2 and the number of identified intermediates decreased evidently at pH 3 and in the presence of methanol at pH 7. Three photocatalytic degradation pathways were proposed: The transformation of the phenolic moiety (pathway I) is the primary initial reaction pathway; the initial photocatalytic degradation in the aliphatic carbon linked to the aromatic ring (pathway II) only took place at pH 7; the isomerization of EE2 (pathway III) could occur only in the presence of methanol at pH 7. Results from this study underscore the importance of photocatalytic degradation on the removal of estrogenic activity mainly expressed by the phenol moiety of EE2.

Comparative electrochemical degradation of phthalic acid esters using boron-doped diamond and Pt anodes

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are a group of endocrine disruptors commonly used as plasticizers. The present study compares the electrochemical oxidation of PAEs at boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode with that at Pt anode. Both the degradation and the mineralization processes of PAEs became much slower when using the Pt anode compared with that using the BDD anode. Moreover, the degradation rates of PAEs decreased at the BDD anode but increased at the Pt anode with increasing alkyl chain length. This was attributed to the different oxidation mechanisms at the two anodes. The BDD electrode has an inert surface that holds a large amount of strong oxidants as free hydroxyl radicals ((*)OH), causing electrophilic attack by (*)OH to be the main reaction. Therefore, degradation of PAEs became slower on the BDD anode due to there being less available electronic energy as the alkyl chain length increased. However, adsorbed oxidants (PtO(x)(+1)) with low oxidation ability tended to form on the surface of the active Pt anode. Therefore, PAEs with longer alkyl chains promote faster degradation owing to their stronger hydrophobicity. Detection of intermediates in the GC/MS tests confirmed the above conclusion, in which oxidation of dimethyl phthalate on BDD occurred on the aromatic ring at first, while the alkyl chain was preferentially attacked on the Pt anode.

Palm oil mill effluent treatment using a two-stage microbial fuel cells system integrated with immobilized biological aerated filters

An integrated system of two-stage microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and immobilized biological aerated filters (I-BAFs) was used to treat palm oil mill effluent (POME) at laboratory scale. By replacing the conventional two-stage up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) with a newly proposed upflow membrane-less microbial fuel cell (UML-MFC) in the integrated system, significant improvements on NH(3)-N removal were observed and direct electricity generation implemented in both MFC1 and MFC2. Moreover, the coupled iron-carbon micro-electrolysis in the cathode of MFC2 further enhanced treatment efficiency of organic compounds. The I-BAFs played a major role in further removal of NH(3)-N and COD. For influent COD and NH(3)-N of 10,000 and 125 mg/L, respectively, the final effluents COD and NH(3)-N were below 350 and 8 mg/L, with removal rates higher than 96.5% and 93.6%. The GC-MS analysis indicated that most of the contaminants were satisfactorily biodegraded by the integrated system.

Rapid assessment of sustainability in Mainland China

This paper presents an approach for rapid assessment of sustainability for Mainland China based on a multilayer index system. Efficient assessment is conducted with the basic mapping units at county and city levels. After evaluating a comprehensive sustainable development index, SDI, for each unit, five rankings of sustainability are determined, and a zonation map produced. Regional characteristics and differences are interpreted through macro-analysis of the spatial variation in SDI. A sensitivity analysis is performed by which the weights of the sub-indices are altered by +/-20%, and SDI re-evaluated; the resulting grades remain the same, thus confirming the robustness of the technique. Moreover, the accuracy of the proposed approach is indirectly validated by comparison with assessment results from an alternative systems analysis method. It is found that major conurbations such as Beijing have relatively high levels of sustainability, whereas provinces in central and western China require investment to improve their sustainability.

Effect of nitro substituent on electrochemical oxidation of phenols at boron-doped diamond anodes

In order to investigate nitro-substitutent's effect on degradation of phenols at boron-doped diamond (BDD) anodes, cyclic voltammetries of three nitrophenol isomers: 2-nitrophenol (2NP), 3-nitrophenol (3NP) and 4-nitrophenol (4NP) were studied, and their bulk electrolysis results were compared with phenol's (Ph) under alkaline condition. The voltammetric study showed nitrophenols could be attacked by hydroxyl radicals and nitro-group was released from the aromatic ring. Results of bulk electrolysis showed degradation of all phenols were fit to a pseudo first-order equation and followed in this order: 2NP>4NP>3NP>Ph. Molecular structures, especially carbon atom charge, significantly influenced the electrochemical oxidation of these isomers. Intermediates were analyzed during the electrolysis process, and were mainly catechol, resorcinol, hydroquinone, and carboxylic acids, such as acetic acid and oxalic acid. A simple degradation pathway was proposed. Moreover, a linear increasing relationship between degradation rates and Hammett constants of the studied phenols was observed, which demonstrated that electrochemical oxidation of these phenols was mainly initiated by electrophilic attack of hydroxyl radicals at BDD anodes.

Paper sludge as a feasible soil amendment for the immobilization of Pb2+

The possibility of amending Pb2+ contaminated soil (S) with paper sludge (P) was investigated through adsorption and desorption experiments. The adsorption process of Pb2+ in soil containing paper sludge (SP) could be well described by pseudo second-order kinetic model and the Langmuir isotherm model. After P addition, the equilibrium time decreased greatly (from 28 to 8 hr) and the Pb2+ maximum adsorbed amount (Qmax) increased by a factor of more than three to 102.04 mg/g. Qmax reached its maximum as S:P was 9:1 (m/m) after 10 days contact between S and P. Moreover, Pb2+ adsorbed amount increased with the rise of pH during the adsorption process. Desorption experiments indicated that Pb2+ adsorption in SP was irreversible. The metal ion fraction was analyzed with Energy Dispersive Spectrometer and Environmental Scan Electron Microscope. As a result, the addition of P to soil was found to induce a decrease in the mobile forms. The Pb2+ complexes formation in the presence of carbonates was the main adsorption mechanism. Overall, the paper sludge could be one of the promising soil amendments for the remediation of soil with Pb2+ contamination.

Production of diosgenin from yellow ginger (Dioscorea zingiberensis C. H. Wright) saponins by commercial cellulase

A commercial cellulase was first assessed to be effective in hydrolyzing glycosyl at the C-3 and C-26 positions in steroidal saponins from yellow ginger (Dioscorea zingiberensis C. H. Wright) to diosgenin, a very important chemical in the pharmaceutical industry. The effect of different parameters on enzyme hydrolysis was further investigated by systematically varying them. The highest yield was achieved when the hydrolysis ran at 55°C and pH 5.0 with an enzyme to substrate ratio of 15 × 10(3) U/g. The biotransformed products identified using TLC and HPLC confirmed that the cellulase was capable of releasing diosgenin from steroidal saponins. Moreover, the biotransformation process was explored by LC-MS and LC-MS/MS analysis. Enzymatic hydrolysis together with 40 % of the original sulphuric acid used increased the diosgenin yield by 15.4 ± 2.7% than traditional method. Therefore, the commercial cellulase may serve as a promising tool for industrial diosgenin production and for further use in saponin modification.

A novel UASB-MFC-BAF integrated system for high strength molasses wastewater treatment and bioelectricity generation

An up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor-microbial fuel cell-biological aerated filter (UASB-MFC-BAF) system was developed for simultaneous bioelectricity generation and molasses wastewater treatment in this study. The maximum power density of 1410.2 mW/m(2) was obtained with a current density of 4947.9 mA/m(2) when the high strength molasses wastewater with chemical oxygen demand (COD) of 127,500 mg/l was employed as the influent. The total COD, sulfate and color removal efficiencies of the proposed system were achieved of 53.2%, 52.7% and 41.1%, respectively. Each unit of this system had respective function and performed well when integrated together. The UASB reactor unit was mainly responsible for COD removal and sulfate reduction, while the MFC unit was used for the oxidation of generated sulfide with electricity generation. The BAF unit dominated color removal and phenol derivatives degradation. This study is a beneficial attempt to combine MFC technology with conventional anaerobic-aerobic processes for actual wastewater treatment.

Process optimization for the production of diosgenin with Trichoderma reesei

Based on the response surface methodology, an effective microbial system for diosgenin production from enzymatic pretreated Dioscorea zingiberensis tubers with Trichoderma reesei was studied. The fermentation medium was optimized with central composite design (3(5)) depended on Plackett-Burmann design which identified significant impacts of peptone, K(2)HPO(4) and Tween 80 on diosgenin yield. The effects of different fermentation conditions on diosgenin production were also studied. Four parameters, i.e. incubation period, temperature, initial pH and substrate concentration were optimized using 4(5) central composite design. The highest diosgenin yield of 90.57% was achieved with 2.67% (w/v) of peptone, 0.29% (w/v) of K(2)HPO(4), 0.73% (w/v) of Tween 80 and 9.77% (w/v) of substrate, under the condition of pH 5.8, temperature 30 degrees C. The idealized incubation time was 6.5 days. After optimization, the product yield increased by 33.70% as compared to 67.74 +/- 1.54% of diosgenin yield in not optimized condition. Scale-up fermentation was carried out in a 5.0 l bioreactor, maximum diosgenin yield of 90.17 +/- 3.12% was obtained at an aeration of 0.80 vvm and an agitation rate of 300 rpm. The proposed microbial system is clean and effective for diosgenin production and thus more environmentally acceptable than the traditional acid hydrolysis.

Advanced treatment of biologically pretreated coking wastewater by electrochemical oxidation using boron-doped diamond electrodes

Electrochemical oxidation is a promising technology to treatment of bio-refractory wastewater. Coking wastewater contains high concentration of refractory and toxic compounds and the water quality usually cannot meet the discharge standards after conventional biological treatment processes. This paper initially investigated the electrochemical oxidation using boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode for advanced treatment of coking wastewater. Under the experimental conditions (current density 20-60mAcm(-2), pH 3-11, and temperature 20-60 degrees C) using BDD anode, complete mineralization of organic pollutants was almost achieved, and surplus ammonia-nitrogen (NH(3)-N) was further removed thoroughly when pH was not adjusted or at alkaline value. Moreover, the TOC and NH(3)-N removal rates in BDD anode cell were much greater than those in other common anode systems such as SnO(2) and PbO(2) anodes cells. Given the same target to meet the National Discharge Standard of China, the energy consumption of 64kWhkgCOD(-1) observed in BDD anode system was only about 60% as much as those observed in SnO(2) and PbO(2) anode systems. Further investigation revealed that, in BDD anode cell, organic pollutants were mainly degraded by reaction with free hydroxyl radicals and electrogenerated oxidants (S(2)O(8)(2-), H(2)O(2), and other oxidants) played a less important role, while direct electrochemical oxidation and indirect electrochemical oxidation mediated by active chlorine can be negligible. These results showed great potential of BDD anode system in engineering application as a final treatment of coking wastewater.

Deposition kinetics of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) on silica in monovalent and divalent salts

The deposition kinetics of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) on silica surfaces were examined in both monovalent and divalent solutions under a variety of environmentally relevant ionic strength and pH conditions by employing a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (DCM-D). Soluble EPS (SEPS) and bound EPS (BEPS) were extracted from four bacterial strains with different characteristics. Maximum favorable deposition rates (k(fa)) were observed for all EPS at low ionic strengths in both NaCl and CaCl2 solutions. With the increase of ionic strength, k(fa) decreased due to the simultaneous occurrence of EPS aggregation in solutions. Deposition efficiency (alpha; the ratio of deposition rates obtained under unfavorable versus corresponding favorable conditions) for all EPS increased with increasing ionic strength in both NaCl and CaCl2 solutions, which agreed with the trends of zeta potentials and was consistent with the classic Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory. Comparison of alpha for SEPS and BEPS extracted from the same strain showed that the trends of alpha did not totally agree with trends of zeta potentials, indicating the deposition kinetics of EPS on silica surfaces were not only controlled by DLVO interactions, but also non-DLVO forces. Close comparison of alpha for EPS extracted from different sources showed alpha increased with increasing proteins to polysaccharides ratio. Subsequent experiments for EPS extracted from the same strain but with different proteins to polysaccharides ratios and from activated sludge also showed that alpha were largest for EPS with greatest proteins to polysaccharides ratio. Additional experiments for pure protein and solutions with different pure proteins to pure saccharides ratios further corroborated that larger proteins to polysaccharides ratio resulted in greater EPS deposition.

Improving the ammonium ion uptake onto natural zeolite by using an integrated modification process

Detailed investigation on the development of physical and chemical properties of a natural calcium-rich zeolite modified by an integrated process, as well as the relation between the development and ammonium ion uptake (AIU), was conducted. This process consisted of pretreatment (grinding and sieving), sodium salt modification and calcination. Both pretreatment and salt modification largely increased BET surface area, total pore volume and average pore diameter of the raw zeolite. Individual calcination at temperature above 150 degrees C caused framework collapse, losses of partial clinoptilolite and production of X-ray amorphous material, resulting in pore blockage and the decreases in pore volume and BET surface area. However, the introduction of sodium ion enhanced the heat resistance of the raw material from 150 to 400 degrees C, and Na(+) ion treatment followed by calcination could effectively improved pore and surface properties of zeolite, thus leading to the significant enhancement in ammonium ion exchange and adsorption capabilities.

Washing of field weathered crude oil contaminated soil with an environmentally compatible surfactant, alkyl polyglucoside

Weathered crude oil contaminated soils (COCSs), which are much more difficult to remediate than those freshly contaminated, are widespread especially at the sites of oil fields and industries. Surfactant enhanced ex situ soil washing could be used to remediate COCSs, but surfactant toxicity becomes one of the major concerns. In this study, a class of green surfactants, alkyl polyglucosides (APGs), were tested in washing the field weathered COCS with relatively high oil concentration (123 mgg(-1) dry soil) from Jilin Oilfield, Northeastern China. APG1214, characterized with longer alkyl chain, was more effective than APG0810 in crude oil removal. Adding inorganic sodium salts into APG1214 solution further improved the crude oil removal efficiency (CORE). Washing parameters (temperature, washing time, agitation speed and solution/soil ratio) were investigated and further optimized integratedly with an orthogonal design. At the optimum conditions, the CORE reached 97%. GC/MS analysis showed that the proportion of small n-alkanes (C(16)-C(23)) in residual crude oil gradually increased, which was helpful to interpret the oil removal mechanism. Moreover, eminent effect on removal of large n-alkanes was achieved from the synergy between APG1214 and inorganic salts, which was opposite to the effect when they were added separately. This study demonstrated a promising way to remediate COCS with ecologically compatible surfactant and provided guidelines for its practical application.

Pilot treatment of wastewater from Dioscorea zingiberensis C.H. Wright production by anaerobic digestion combined with a biological aerated filter

An efficient combined system based on modified two-phase anaerobic digestion (MTPAD) combined with a biological aerated filter (BAF) is proposed to treat wastewater generated in the production of Dioscorea zingiberensis C.H. Wright (DZW). The pilot-scale experiments showed that both organics and sulfates at high concentrations could be removed satisfactorily due to the advantages of the MTPAD in eliminating the negative effects of sulfide inhibition to methanogens. Simultaneous nitrification and denitrification (SND) in the BAF resulted in efficient removal of COD and NH(4)(+)-N. UV-vis analysis showed that the organic compounds with aromatic structures were biodegraded effectively in the anaerobic process. GC-MS analysis revealed that furfural compounds in the influent were also biodegraded, leaving fewer compounds remaining in the final biological effluent. High efficiencies of COD removal (99.3%) and NH(4)(+)-N removal (93.7%) were achieved, and the quality of the final effluent met the National Discharge Standards of China for DZW wastewater.

Treatment of bromoamine acid wastewater using combined process of micro-electrolysis and biological aerobic filter

The wastewater originated from the production of bromoamine acid was treated in a sequential system of micro-electrolysis (ME) and biological aerobic filter (BAF). Decolorization and COD(Cr) removal rate of the proposed system was investigated with full consideration of the influence of two major controlling factors such as organic loading rate (OLR) and hydraulic retention time (HRT). The removal rate of COD(Cr) was 81.2% and that of chrominance could be up to 96.6% at an OLR of 0.56 kg m(-3)d(-1) when the total HRT was 43.4h. Most of the chrominance was removed by the ME treatment, however, the BAF process was more effective for COD(Cr) removal. The GC-MS and HPLC-MS analysis of the contaminants revealed that 1-aminoanthraquinone, bromoamine acid and mono-sulfonated 1,2-dichlorobenzene were the main organic components in the wastewater. The reductive transformation of the anthraquinone derivatives in the ME reactor improved the biodegradability of the wastewater, and rendered the decolorization. After long-term of operation, it was observed that the predominant microorganisms immobilized on the BAF carriers were rod-shaped and globular. Four bacterial strains with apparent 16S rDNA fragments in the Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (DGGE) profiles of BAF samples were identified as Variovorax sp., Sphingomonas sp., Mycobacterium sp., and Microbacterium sp.