Prevalence and socio-economic distribution of hazardous patterns of alcohol drinking: study of alcohol consumption in men aged 25-54 years in Izhevsk, Russia

AIM

To estimate the prevalence of hazardous drinking and its socio-economic distribution among Russian men.

DESIGN

Participants were an age-stratified, population-based random sample of men aged 25-54 years living in Izhevsk, a city in the Urals, Russia. Interviewers administered questionnaires to cohabiting proxy respondents about behavioural indicators of hazardous drinking derived from frequency of hangover, frequency of drinking beverage spirits, episodes in the last year of extended periods of drunkenness during which the participant withdraws from normal life (zapoi), consumption of alcoholic substances not intended to be drunk (surrogates) and socio-economic position. Logistic regression was used to examine associations between socio-economic position and indicators of hazardous drinking in the past year.

FINDINGS

Of 1750 men, 79% drank spirits and 8% drank surrogates at least sometimes in the past year; 25% drank spirits and 4% drank surrogates at least weekly and 10% had had an episode of zapoi in the past year. After adjustment for other socio-economic factors, education was strongly associated with indicators of hazardous drinking. Men with the lowest level of education compared to the highest level of education had an odds ratio of surrogate drinking of 7.7 (95% CI 3.2-18.5), of zapoi of 5.2 (2.3-11.8) and of frequent hangover of 3.7 (1.8-7.4). These indicators of hazardous drinking were also independently strongly associated with being unemployed (versus employed) and with levels of household wealth/amenities. Associations of all these variables with daily consumption of beverage spirits were weaker.

CONCLUSION

Using a novel range of indicator variables of hazardous drinking, this paper shows that the prevalence of these behaviours is high among working-age men in this Russian city. Moreover, these hazardous behaviours show very clear socio-economic patterns, with particularly high prevalence among those who have had the least education and are not in employment. In contrast, more conventional measures of heavy drinking, based on frequency of consumption of beverage spirits, are less prevalent and show much weaker associations with socio-economic position.

The normal kidney filters nephrotic levels of albumin retrieved by proximal tubule cells: retrieval is disrupted in nephrotic states

The origin of albuminuria remains controversial owing to difficulties in quantifying the actual amount of albumin filtered by the kidney. Here we use fluorescently labeled albumin, together with the powerful technique of intravital 2-photon microscopy to show that renal albumin filtration in non-proteinuric rats is approximately 50 times greater than previously measured and is followed by rapid endocytosis into proximal tubule cells (PTCs). The endocytosed albumin appears to undergo transcytosis in large vesicles (500 nm in diameter), identified by immunogold staining of endogenous albumin by electron microscopy, to the basolateral membrane where the albumin is disgorged back to the peritubular blood supply. In nephrotic rats, the rate of uptake of albumin by the proximal tubule (PT) is decreased. This is consistent with reduced expression of clathrin, megalin, and vacuolar H(+)-ATPase A subunit, proteins that are critical components of the PT endocytotic machinery. These findings strongly support the paradigm-shifting concept that the glomerular filter normally leaks albumin at nephrotic levels. Albuminuria does not occur as this filtered albumin load is avidly bound and retrieved by PTCs. Dysfunction of this retrieval pathway leads to albuminuria. Thus, restoration of the defective endocytotic and processing function of PT epithelial cells might represent an effective strategy to limit urinary albumin loss, at least in some types of nephrotic syndrome.

Changes in smoking prevalence in Russia, 1996-2004

OBJECTIVES

In Russia, smoking prevalence has historically been high in men and relatively low in women. Female smoking prevalence is predicted to rise but assessment of changes has been limited by the lack of comparable data. Changes in the prevalence of smoking in Russia between 1996 and 2004, and whether theses changes differed by sociodemographic groups, were investigated.

DESIGN

Repeated national interview surveys in 1996 (731 men and 868 women) and 2004 (727 men and 864 women) aged 18 years or more.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Prevalence of current smoking.

RESULTS

The age standardised prevalence of smoking in 1996 and 2004 was 61% and 63%, respectively in men and 15% and 16%, respectively in women (both p values > 0.4). In men, the prevalence of smoking seemed to decline in those with university education (from 51% to 40%, p = 0.085). Among women, smoking appeared to increase in those with university education (from 10% to 17%, p = 0.071) and low levels of self-reported material deprivation (from 11% to 18%, p = 0.053). There was a pronounced increase in prevalence among women living in villages (from 8% to 14%, p = 0.049); the strong urban/rural gradient seen in 1996 became considerably weaker by 2004.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall smoking prevalence in both men and women in Russia remained stable between 1996 and 2004 but, given the sample size, a moderate increase in female smoking cannot be ruled out. In men, smoking increased among the least educated and declined in the most educated. In women the opposite appeared to occur, in addition to an increase in smoking in rural areas. More long term monitoring of smoking patterns in Russia, especially among women, using sufficiently large surveys, is required.

Access to water in the countries of the former Soviet Union

BACKGROUND

During the Soviet period, authorities in the USSR invested heavily in collective farming and modernization of living conditions in rural areas. However, many problems remained, including poor access to many basic amenities such as water. Since then, the situation is likely to have changed; economic decline has coincided with migration and widening social inequalities, potentially increasing disparities within and between countries.

AIM

To examine access to water and sanitation and its determinants in urban and rural areas of eight former Soviet countries.

METHODS

A series of nationally representative surveys in Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Ukraine was undertaken in 2001, covering 18,428 individuals (aged 18+ years).

RESULTS

The percentage of respondents living in rural areas varied between 27 and 59% among countries. There are wide urban-rural differences in access to amenities. Even in urban areas, only about 90% of respondents had access to cold running water in their home (60% in Kyrgyzstan). In rural areas, less than one-third had cold running water in their homes (44% in Russia, under 10% in Kyrgyzstan and Moldova). Between one-third and one-half of rural respondents in some countries (such as Belarus, Kazakhstan and Moldova) obtained their water from wells and similar sources. Access to hot running water inside the homes was an exception in rural households, reflecting the lack of modern heating methods in villages. Similarly, indoor access to toilets is common in urban areas but rare in rural areas. Access to all amenities was better in Russia compared with elsewhere in the region. Indoor access to cold water was significantly more common among rural residents living in apartments, and in settlements served by asphalt roads rather than dirt roads. People with more assets or income and living with other people were significantly more likely to have water on tap. In addition, people who had moved in more recently were more likely to have an indoor water supply.

CONCLUSIONS

This was the largest single study of its kind undertaken in this region, and demonstrates that a significant number of people living in rural parts of the former Soviet Union do not have indoor access to running water and sanitation. There are significant variations among countries, with the worse situation in central Asia and the Caucasus, and the best situation in Russia. Access to water strongly correlates with socio-economic characteristics. These findings suggest a need for sustained investment in rebuilding basic infrastructure in the region, and monitoring the impact of living conditions on health.

Distinct expression patterns of different subunit isoforms of the V-ATPase in the rat epididymis

In the epididymis and vas deferens, the vacuolar H(+)ATPase (V-ATPase), located in the apical pole of narrow and clear cells, is required to establish an acidic luminal pH. Low pH is important for the maturation of sperm and their storage in a quiescent state. The V-ATPase also participates in the acidification of intracellular organelles. The V-ATPase contains many subunits, and several of these subunits have multiple isoforms. So far, only subunits ATP6V1B1, ATP6V1B2, and ATP6V1E2, previously identified as B1, B2, and E subunits, have been described in the rat epididymis. Here, we report the localization of V-ATPase subunit isoforms ATP6V1A, ATP6V1C1, ATP6V1C2, ATP6V1G1, ATP6V1G3, ATP6V0A1, ATP6V0A2, ATP6V0A4, ATP6V0D1, and ATP6V0D2, previously labeled A, C1, C2, G1, G3, a1, a2, a4, d1, and d2, in epithelial cells of the rat epididymis and vas deferens. Narrow and clear cells showed a strong apical staining for all subunits, except the ATP6V0A2 isoform. Subunits ATP6V0A2 and ATP6V1A were detected in intracellular structures closely associated but not identical to the TGN of principal cells and narrow/clear cells, and subunit ATP6V0D1 was strongly expressed in the apical membrane of principal cells in the apparent absence of other V-ATPase subunits. In conclusion, more than one isoform of subunits ATP6V1C, ATP6V1G, ATP6V0A, and ATP6V0D of the V-ATPase are present in the epididymal and vas deferens epithelium. Our results confirm that narrow and clear cells are well fit for active proton secretion. In addition, the diverse functions of the V-ATPase may be established through the utilization of specific subunit isoforms. In principal cells, the ATP6V0D1 isoform may have a physiological function that is distinct from its role in proton transport via the V-ATPase complex.

Indirect reduction and percutaneous fixation versus open reduction and internal fixation for displaced intra-articular fractures of the distal radius

A total of 179 adult patients with displaced intra-articular fractures of the distal radius was randomised to receive indirect percutaneous reduction and external fixation (n = 88) or open reduction and internal fixation (n = 91). Patients were followed up for two years. During the first year the upper limb musculoskeletal function assessment score, the SF-36 bodily pain sub-scale score, the overall Jebsen score, pinch strength and grip strength improved significantly in all patients. There was no statistically significant difference in the radiological restoration of anatomical features or the range of movement between the groups.

During the period of two years, patients who underwent indirect reduction and percutaneous fixation had a more rapid return of function and a better functional outcome than those who underwent open reduction and internal fixation, provided that the intra-articular step and gap deformity were minimised.

Exploring the impact of foreign direct investment on tobacco consumption in the former Soviet Union

BACKGROUND

Tobacco is the single largest cause of morbidity and mortality in the developed world; in the former socialist bloc tobacco kills twice as many men as in the west. Although evidence shows that liberalisation of the cigarette trade through the elimination of import barriers leads to significant increases in consumption, far less is known about the impact of foreign direct investment on cigarette consumption. This paper seeks to explore the impact that the substantial transnational tobacco company investments have had on patterns of tobacco trade and consumption in the former Soviet Union.

DESIGN

Routine data were used to explore trends in cigarette trade and consumption in the 15 countries of the former Soviet Union from the 1960s to the present day. Comparisons were made between trends in countries that have received substantial investment from the tobacco transnationals and countries that have not.

RESULTS

Between 1991 and 2000 cigarette production increased by 96% in countries receiving industry investment and by 11% in countries that did not. Over the same period cigarette consumption increased by 40%; the increase was concentrated in countries receiving investments. Despite these investments, cigarette imports still outweigh exports and no trade surplus has yet to result.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that liberalisation of inward investment has a significant and positive impact on cigarette consumption and that without appropriate safeguards, market liberalisation may have long term negative impacts on health. Specific trade rules are needed to govern trade and investment in this uniquely harmful product. Implementation of effective tobacco control policies should precede tobacco industry privatisation. International financial organisations pressing for privatisation should ensure this occurs.

Untangling Gordian knots: improving tuberculosis control through the development of‘programme theories’

We argue that if the lessons from tuberculosis control programmes are to be drawn effectively then a more nuanced understanding is needed that takes account of the complex health system environment within which they sit. We suggest that a conceptual framework that draws upon the World Health Organization's DOTS strategy can be harnessed to assist the systematic analysis of programmes in a way that links this vertical, disease specific strategy to horizontal health system factors so that comparisons can be made. This multi-disciplinary, multi-method approach to the evaluation builds upon the work of others including Pawson and Tilley and their 'programmes theories'. This work has informed the application of an evaluation toolkit which has been successfully applied in a number of settings and assisted in the sustainable implementation of a DOTS strategy in Russia.

Open fractures of the calcaneus: a review of treatment and outcome

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to evaluate the functional and clinical outcome of patients with open calcaneus fractures and to determine what factors were associated with these outcomes.

DESIGN

Retrospective review of 2 level 1 prospective databases. SETTING/PATIENTS/PARTICIPANTS: All patients admitted with an open calcaneal fracture to 2 level 1 trauma units between January 1, 1987 and April 1, 1996 were identified. Data regarding demographics, injury characteristics, and treatment and complications were documented using a standardized data abstraction form. Radiographs were reviewed to document the fracture type according to Essex-Lopresti. For those patients who had computed tomography scans available, the Sanders et al classification was applied and documented. Patients were contacted and asked to return for follow-up evaluation including the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society ankle/hindfoot score, the Maryland Foot Score, and the Short Form 36 (SF-36). For patients not willing to return for examination, the questionnaires were completed over the telephone, and the objective scoring components were assigned to lowest score possible.

RESULTS

Of 177 calcaneal fractures in patients treated as inpatients during the study period, we identified 30 open fractures in 29 patients. Twenty-seven patients had associated injuries. Two patients underwent amputation within 24 hours due to severe crush injury. Following urgent debridement, soft tissues were closed primarily (22 fractures) or with split thickness skin grafting (4 fractures) and free flap coverage (2 fractures); temporary spanning external fixation was used in 3 patients. Definitive fracture care was at the discretion of the treating surgeon and consisted of closed reduction without fixation (10 fractures), open reduction and bone grafting (1 fracture), minimal Kirschner wire (K wire) fixation (12 fractures), and formal lateral open reduction and internal fixation (5 fractures). There were no late amputations. There were no deep infections. Twenty-one of the 28 patients with salvaged limbs returned for follow-up evaluation, and 3 additional patients agreed to be interviewed by telephone. The average time to follow-up was 49 months with a range of 25 to 106 months. The overall American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society ankle/hindfoot scores and Maryland Foot Scores were fair to poor. The average SF-36 results were within 1 standard deviation of published Canadian norms. Worse function was observed in patients with plantar wounds. Severely comminuted fractures had the worst function, whereas single joint depression injuries had the best functional outcome.

CONCLUSION

Infection is uncommon following open calcaneus fractures treated with aggressive soft tissue management. Patients with plantar wounds and comminuted fractures are expected to have particularly poor functional results.

Comparison of the Micro-Nutrica Nutritional Analysis program and the Russian Food Composition Database using data from the Baltic Nutrition Surveys

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to compare the nutrient content of foods and diets based on data from two food composition databases used in the Baltic Nutrition Surveys (conducted in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in 1997): an adapted version of the Finnish Micro-Nutrica Nutritional Analysis program (used in Estonia) and the Russian Institute of Nutrition Food Composition Database (used in Latvia and Lithuania).

DESIGN

The adapted Micro-Nutrica and Russian databases were used to estimate the energy and nutrient (protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamin C, calcium and iron) content of 15 common foodstuffs in the region and the nutrient intakes of 32 Latvian respondents (based on 24-h recalls). Differences between databases were estimated.

RESULTS

There were discrepancies in the energy and nutrient content of the 15 selected foods using the two databases. The adapted Micro-Nutrica database generally gave a lower energy content than the Russian database (median: -6%), and a lower fat content for typically fat-rich foods. Intakes of energy, fat, carbohydrate and calcium by the 32 selected respondents were significantly lower when the Micro-Nutrica database was used. Differences were particularly high for fat (difference=-23.5%, 95% confidence interval=-31.1 to -15.8%, P<0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that reported comparisons of nutrient intakes in the Baltic countries should be treated with caution and that more research is needed for the development of comparable national databases in the region. Potential differences between databases should be investigated early when international surveys of dietary intake are being planned.

Health systems in transition in Central and Eastern Europe

On 1 May 2004, eight former communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe joined the European Union (EU). THis created a range of challenges for health policy in the new member states. On top of issues relating to the health of their populations, their economic situation, and the changing nature of healthcare that affects all countries, the process of acceding to the EU requires them to adhere to the accumulated boyd of European law, some of which has implications, directly or indirectly, for health policy. This paper examines these challenges and the responses being developed to them. While the countries have much in common, in particular the shift from the former model of healthcare financing to a more pluralistic model, often based on health insurance, there is also considerable diversity, as each is using different policy options to achieve the same broad objectives. While these countries have much in common, not least the experience of EU accession, they also have considerable flexibility to pursue the systems that they choose. The challenge is to enable a process of homogenous model that ignores their important systems of healthcare being adopted by their neighbours in this region and to the models existing in the countries of Western Europe, but instead should be looking to the systems that they will have to put in place to meet the specific health needs of their own populations, which are different from those in other parts of Europe as well to meet the challenges of the future.

Type 2 diabetes in Tirana City, Albania: a rapid increase in a country in transition

AIMS

To determine how the prevalence of Type 2 diabetes mellitus has changed in Tirana, the capital of Albania, over 20 years.

METHODS

Cluster sampling was used to select 700 households including 1540 adults 25 years of age and over in Tirana City, Albania in 2001.

RESULTS

Of 1540 potential subjects, 1120 participated (response rate 72.7%). Using the 1985 WHO criteria to provide comparability with earlier data, the overall prevalence of Type 2 diabetes mellitus in the age group 25+ was 6.3% (95% confidence interval 4.8-7.7); 6.9% (4.8-9.1%) male; 5.6% (3.8-7.5%) female. The age-adjusted prevalence in those aged 25+ was 5.4%. Of respondents, 3.4% were known to have diabetes, and 2.9% were newly identified through the survey. The prevalence of diabetes increased with age, although among men there was a slight decline after age 65. Impaired glucose tolerance was found in a further 2.9% of respondents, again increasing with age. The prevalence of diabetes has increased significantly since 1980, doubling in the age group 50+. Use of the 1999 WHO diagnostic criteria produces a higher unadjusted prevalence, at 9.7% (8-11.4%). In a logistic regression model, obesity and family history were independent determinants of the probability of having diabetes. Among those known to have diabetes, control was poor.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of diabetes in Albania has increased rapidly, consistent with what has been seen in other countries undergoing rapid modernization. It is likely to increase further in the future, with important implications for health policy.

Epidemiology of hypertension and associated cardiovascular risk factors in a country in transition: a population based survey in Tirana City, Albania

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To describe the prevalence of hypertension and other cardiovascular risk factors on the adult population of Tirana City (Albania).

DESIGN

Cross sectional survey.

SETTING

Tirana City in mid-2001.

PARTICIPANTS

1120 adults aged 25 years and over (response rate=72.7%).

MAIN RESULTS

Overall, hypertension prevalence (blood pressure =140 and/or 90 mm Hg, or known hypertensive receiving anti-hypertensive treatment) was 31.8% (36.6% and 27.4% in men and women respectively). Age standardised prevalence of hypertension (adjusted to the adult population of Tirana) was 30.2% (99% confidence intervals 29.8% to 30.6%) in men and 22.7% (22.3% to 23.1%) in women. Men were significantly more likely to be hypertensive than women (p value=0.001). Of those who had been diagnosed with hypertension, 87% were receiving anti-hypertensive therapy and more than half of them (52%) were adequately controlled. The prevalence of hypertension increased with increasing age and was more common in the obese in both sexes. While the prevalence of hypertension matched that in other industrialised and transition countries, the combination of hypertension with other cardiovascular risk factors was rather less common.

CONCLUSION

These findings provide important new evidence on the prevalence of hypertension and its association with other cardiovascular risk factors in Albania. Albania is in a state of rapid transition, with evidence that risk factors for non-communicable diseases have already increased considerably over the past two decades. These finding provide a unique baseline against which future change can be compared.