Structure and specificity of GATA proteins in Th2 development

Development of Th2 subset of CD4+ T cells involves the interleukin-4 (IL-4)- and Stat6-dependent increase in GATA-3 expression during primary activation. Recently we reported that the phenotypic stability and factor independence of Th2 cells involves acquisition of an intracellular pathway that maintains GATA-3 expression. Evidence from retroviral expression studies implied that this pathway involved an autoactivation of GATA-3 expression, since Stat6-deficient T cells induced endogenous GATA-3 when infected with GATA-3-expressing retroviruses. That study left unresolved the issue of whether GATA-3 autoactivation was direct or indirect. Several other Th2-specific transcription factors have been described, including c-Maf and JunB. We therefore examined the ability of these other transcription factors to induce GATA-3 expression and promote Th2 development. Neither c-Maf nor JunB induced Th2 development in Stat6-deficient CD4+ T cells, in contrast to GATA-3. Consistent with this indication of a possible direct autoactivation pathway, we also observed that heterologous GATA family proteins GATA-1, GATA-2, and GATA-4 were also capable of inducing GATA-3 expression in developing Stat6-deficient T cells and promote Th2 development. Mutational analysis revealed evidence for two distinct mechanisms of GATA-3 action. IL-4 induction by GATA-3 required each of the functional domains to be present, whereas repression of gamma interferon could occur even when mutants of GATA-3 lacking the second transactivation domain, TA2, were expressed. The GATA-dependent induction of the GATA-3 but not the other GATA genes in T cells suggests that T-cell-specific cis elements within the GATA-3 locus likely cooperate with a general GATA recognition motif to allow GATA-3-dependent autoactivation.

Regulation of IL-4 gene expression by distal regulatory elements and GATA-3 at the chromatin level

Using a transgenic approach, we examined distal regulatory elements located in the IL-4 locus and the role of GATA-3 at these elements. The intergenic DNase I hypersensitive sites (HSS) showed strong enhancement, and the intronic enhancer (IE) and HS5/HS5a sites showed weaker enhancement of the IL-4 promoter. Elements in the 3' region of the IL-4 gene contributed to Th2 specificity. All individual enhancers were T cell activation dependent but not Th2 specific, with the exception of IE. However, when these distal elements were combined into a "minilocus," expression was strongly enhanced and Th2 specific. GATA-3 mediated strong enhancement of IL-4 promoter activity in Th1 cells when the promoter was embedded in the minilocus or linked to HSS and IE, demonstrating that GATA-3 acts through these elements to regulate IL-4 gene expression.

IL-12-induced reversal of human Th2 cells is accompanied by full restoration of IL-12 responsiveness and loss of GATA-3 expression

IL-12 is a potent inducer of IFN-gamma production and drives the development of Th1 cells. Human polarized Th2 cells do not express the signaling beta2-subunit of the IL-12R and, therefore, do not signal in response to IL-12. The question was raised as to what extent the loss of the IL-12Rbeta2 chain in Th2 cells has bearing on the stability of the human Th2 phenotype. In the present report, we show that restimulation of human fully polarized Th2 cells in the presence of IL-12 primes for a shift towards Th0/Th1 phenotypes, accompanied by suppression of GATA-3 expression and induction of T-bet expression. These reversed cells are further characterized by a marked IL-12Rbeta2 chain expression and fully restored IL-12-inducible STAT4 activation. The IL-12-induced phenotypic shift proved to be stable as a subsequent restimulation in the presence of IL-4 and in the absence of IL-12 could not undo the accomplished changes. Identical results were obtained with cells from atopic patients, both with polyclonal Th2 cell lines and allergen-specific Th2 cell clones. These findings suggest the possibility of restoring IL-12 responsiveness in established Th2 cells of atopic patients by stimulation in the presence of IL-12, and that IL-12-promoting immunotherapy can be beneficial for Th2-mediated immune disorders, targeting both naive and memory effector T cells.

TH2 cytokine-associated transcription factors in atopic and nonatopic asthma: evidence for differential signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 expression

BACKGROUND

The expression of IL-4 and IL-5 is increased in patients with atopic asthma compared with control subjects and correlates with indices of pulmonary function. In nonatopic asthma the expression of IL-4, unlike IL-5, fails to correlate with pulmonary function, and compared with their atopic counterparts, these patients have fewer cells expressing IL-4 receptor (IL-4R). As such, a deficiency in the IL-4 signaling pathway may be implicated in nonatopic asthma. The transcription factors GATA-3 and cMAF mediate IL-4 and IL-5 synthesis, whereas signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT-6) is critical for IL-4R signaling.

OBJECTIVE

This study examines the expression profile of these transcription factors in asthma, according to atopic status.

METHODS

With immunocytochemistry, the expression of GATA-3, cMAF, and STAT-6 protein was determined in sections of bronchial biopsy specimens from patients with atopic asthma (n = 7), patients with nonatopic asthma (n = 8), and control subjects (n = 8).

RESULTS

Higher numbers of cells expressing GATA-3 and cMAF were observed in patients with atopic and those with nonatopic asthma than in control subjects and patients with tuberculosis (P <.001). There were also more STAT-6-immunoreactive cells in patients with atopic and those with nonatopic asthma than in control subjects (P <.0001, P <.05). Notably, however, fewer cells expressing STAT-6 protein were observed in nonatopic versus atopic asthma (P <.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate the upregulation of GATA-3 and cMAF in both variants of asthma and indicate that reduced IL-4R signaling, because of lower STAT-6 expression, may be a feature of nonatopic asthma.

An instructive component in T helper cell type 2 (Th2) development mediated by GATA-3

Although interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-4 polarize naive CD4(+) T cells toward T helper cell type 1 (Th1) or Th2 phenotypes, it is not known whether cytokines instruct the developmental fate in uncommitted progenitors or select for outgrowth of cells that have stochastically committed to a particular fate. To distinguish these instructive and selective models, we used surface affinity matrix technology to isolate committed progenitors based on cytokine secretion phenotype and developed retroviral-based tagging approaches to directly monitor individual progenitor fate decisions at the clonal and population levels. We observe IL-4-dependent redirection of phenotype in cells that have already committed to a non-IL-4-producing fate, inconsistent with predictions of the selective model. Further, retroviral tagging of naive progenitors with the Th2-specific transcription factor GATA-3 provided direct evidence for instructive differentiation, and no evidence for the selective outgrowth of cells committed to either the Th1 or Th2 fate. These data would seem to exclude selection as an exclusive mechanism in Th1/Th2 differentiation, and support an instructive model of cytokine-driven transcriptional programming of cell fate decisions.

Early transcription and silencing of cytokine genes underlie polarization of T helper cell subsets

Naive CD4+ T cells activated through TCR/CD28 under Th1 or Th2 conditions expressed canonical cytokine patterns irrespective of cell division. Only cells that had divided fewer than four times were capable of reexpressing alternative cytokines when restimulated under opposing conditions. Although T cells transcribed both IFN-gamma and IL-4 within hours in a Stat4-/Stat6-independent manner, neither T-bet nor GATA-3 was induced optimally without Stat signals, and polarized cytokine expression was not sustained. Cytokine genes were positioned apart from heterochromatin in resting T cell nuclei, consistent with rapid expression. After polarization, the majority of silenced cytokine alleles were repositioned to heterochromatin. Naive T cells transit through sequential stages of cytokine activation, commitment, silencing, and physical stabilization during polarization into differentiated effector subsets.

Contribution of ventral and dorsal mesoderm to primitive and definitive erythropoiesis in the salamander Hynobius retardatus

Previously, we found that the conversion of hemoglobins (Hbs) from the larval to the adult type occurred within a single erythroid cell population in a salamander, Hynobius retardatus ("Hb switching" model), whereas the transition involves replacement of red-blood-cell (RBC) populations ("RBC replacement" model) in many amphibians (M. Yamaguchi, H. Takahashi, and M. Wakahara, 2000, Dev. Gene Evol. 210, 180-189). To further characterize the Hb transition, developmental changes in the erythropoietic sites have been intensively analyzed using larval- and adult-specific globin antibodies and globin and GATA-3 RNA probes. Cells of the ventral blood island (VBI) and the dorsolateral plate (DLP) in embryos differentiate in situ to erythroid cells that contain larval globin mRNA, suggesting that both the VBI and the DLP contribute to "primitive" erythropoiesis. In contrast, the expression pattern of the GATA-3 gene suggests that cells of the DLP may contribute to "definitive" hematopoiesis. In order to determine whether it is possible to define a definitive erythropoiesis in H. retardatus or not, further experiments were done: (1) when metamorphosing larvae were treated with phenylhydrazine to induce anemia and then bled at the postmetamorphic stage after recovery from the anemia, a precocious Hb transition was observed in these animals; (2) an RBC population expressing only adult Hb was confirmed by subtracting the number of RBCs expressing larval Hb from the total number of RBCs during metamorphosis. All these results support the existence of a definitive erythroid cell population that contributes only adult RBCs in this species.

Kinetics of GATA-3 gene expression in early polarizing and committed human T cells

Different transcription factors have been shown to control the transition of naive T cells into T helper 1 (Th1)/Th2 subsets. The T-cell-specific transcription factor GATA-3 is known to be selectively expressed in murine developing Th2 cells and to exert a positive action on Th2-specific cytokine production. Investigating GATA-3 gene regulation in human T cells we have found that naive T cells highly express GATA-3, and during early T2 or T1 polarization, respectively, they either maintain or quickly down-regulate expression. In developing T2 cells, as well as in committed Th2 cell lines and clones, we found a positive correlation among GATA-3, interleukin (IL)-5 and IL-4 gene expression kinetics, supporting the positive action of GATA-3 on Th2-specific cytokine production. A possible relationship between GATA-3 gene expression and the down-regulation of the IL-12 receptor (beta2-chain; IL-12Rbeta2) gene was evident only in the early phases of T2 polarization (within 24 hr), and not demonstrated at later times. During T-cell commitment the presence of IL-4 in the culture was essential to maintain or enhance GATA-3 transcription, while IL-12 was not necessary for full repression of GATA-3. Finally, we showed selective GATA-3 up-regulation in human Th2 cell lines and clones and the maintainance of a low basal level of GATA-3 expression in Th1 cells upon activation.

Transcription factor GATA-3 alters pathway selection of olivocochlear neurons and affects morphogenesis of the ear

Patterning the vertebrate ear requires the coordinated expression of genes that are involved in morphogenesis, neurogenesis, and hair cell formation. The zinc finger gene GATA-3 is expressed both in the inner ear and in afferent and efferent auditory neurons. Specifically, GATA-3 is expressed in a population of neurons in rhombomere 4 that extend their axons across the floor plate of rhombomere 4 (r4) at embryonic day 10 (E10) and reach the sensory epithelia of the ear by E13.5. The distribution of their cell bodies corresponds to that of the cell bodies of the cochlear and vestibular efferent neurons as revealed by labeling with tracers. Both GATA-3 heterozygous and GATA-3 null mutant mice show unusual axonal projections, such as misrouted crossing fibers and fibers in the facial nerve, that are absent in wild-type littermates. This suggests that GATA-3 is involved in the pathfinding of efferent neuron axons that navigate to the ear. In the ear, GATA-3 is expressed inside the otocyst and the surrounding periotic mesenchyme. The latter expression is in areas of branching of the developing ear leading to the formation of semicircular canals. Ears of GATA-3 null mutants remain cystic, with a single extension of the endolymphatic duct and no formation of semicircular canals or saccular and utricular recesses. Thus, both the distribution of GATA-3 and the effects of null mutations on the ear suggest involvement of GATA-3 in morphogenesis of the ear. This study shows for the first time that a zinc finger factor is involved in axonal navigation of the inner ear efferent neurons and, simultaneously, in the morphogenesis of the inner ear.

Regulation of expression of IL-4 alleles: analysis using a chimeric GFP/IL-4 gene

CD4 cells from mice heterozygous for an IL-4 and a GFP/IL-4 gene frequently express a single allele. Analysis of IL-4 or GFP production by cells from recently primed Th2 cells indicates that essentially all are competent to transcribe either allele but have a low probability of doing so. By contrast, long-term Th2 clones show distinct and heritable ratios in the proportion of cells that express IL-4 or GFP. We conclude that in the course of Th2 priming an early efficient event renders both alleles capable of being inefficiently transcribed; a second, less frequent event occurs that renders one allele more competent, accounting for the differential expression of IL-4 and GFP in different clones.

Regulation of cytokine production in T-cell responses to inhalant allergen:GATA-3 expression distinguishes between Th1- and Th2-polarized immunity

BACKGROUND

The precise nature of allergen-specific cytokine responses in atopics versus non-atopics, in particular the 'Th1 polarity' of responses in non-atopics, remains controversial. This is due in part to the relative insensitivity of cytokine detection systems, and associated variations in kinetics of cytokine production and catabolism in in vitro culture systems. As an alternative to cytokine measurement, this study focuses on expression of the transcription factor GATA-3 for analysis of allergen-specific Th cell responses.

METHODS

Cord blood mononuclear cells were Th1- or Th2-polarized by culture in IL-12- or IL-4-employing established methods; PBMC from house dust mite (HDM)-sensitive atopics and controls were stimulated overnight with HDM; cytokine production was measured by ELISA and GATA-3 mRNA expression by PCR.

RESULTS

Cytokine-driven Th2 polarization of naive T cells is associated with marked upregulation of GATA-3 expression, whereas a reciprocal expression pattern accompanies differentiation towards the Th1 cytokine phenotype. In T cells from HDM skin prick test-positive (HDM-SPT+/HDM-IgE+) volunteers, overnight stimulation results in marked upregulation of GATA-3 expression, compared to an equally marked downregulation of expression in T cells from SPT-/IgE- subjects. In subjects who are HDM-SPT+ but IgE-, GATA-3 expression levels remained relatively stable during culture with HDM.

CONCLUSIONS

Upregulation of GATA-3 expression in PBMC is a hallmark of the early phase of Th2 recall responses to specific allergen in atopics. The reciprocal expression pattern observed in HDM-specific recall responses of non-atopics provides independent confirmation of the presence of underlying Th1-like immunity in these subjects. The parallel findings in neonatal T cells suggest that the same approach may be utilized for monitoring the progress of allergen-specific Th1/Th2 memory development during early childhood, and hence in assessment of risk for future allergic disease.

A critical role for NF-kappa B in GATA3 expression and TH2 differentiation in allergic airway inflammation

The transcription factor GATA-3 is expressed in T helper 2 (TH2) but not TH1 cells and plays a critical role in TH2 differentiation and allergic airway inflammation in vivo. Mice that lack the p50 subunit of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B) are unable to mount airway eosinophilic inflammation. We show here that this is not due to defects in TH2 cell recruitment but due to the inability of the p50-/- mice to produce interleukin 4 (IL-4), IL-5 and IL-13: cytokines that play distinct roles in asthma pathogenesis. CD4+ T cells from p50-/- mice failed to induce Gata3 expression under TH2-differentiating conditions but showed unimpaired T-bet expression and interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) production under TH1-differentiating conditions. Inhibition of NF-kappa B activity prevented GATA-3 expression and TH2 cytokine production in developing, but not committed, TH2 cells. Our studies provide a molecular basis for the need for both T cell receptor and cytokine signaling for GATA-3 expression and, in turn, TH2 differentiation.

Cutting edge: chromatin remodeling at the IL-4/IL-13 intergenic regulatory region for Th2-specific cytokine gene cluster

During the differentiation of naive Th cells into Th2 effector cells, the entire IL-4/IL-13 locus is remodeled into an accessible chromatin conformation. Here we show that ectopic expression and activation of Stat6 or GATA-3 in Th cells developing under Th1-polarizing conditions lead to the induction of chromatin remodeling not only at the flanking regions of the IL-4 and IL-13 genes but also at the IL-4/IL-13 intergenic regulatory region for the IL-4/IL-13/IL-5 gene cluster. Furthermore, we demonstrate that GATA-3 and another Th2-specific, inducible protein complex interact with the IL-4/IL-13 intergenic DNase I hypersensitive region specifically in Th2 cells.

Erythropoietin stimulates proliferation and interferes with differentiation of myoblasts

Erythropoietin (Epo) is required for the production of mature red blood cells. The requirement for Epo and its receptor (EpoR) for normal heart development and the response of vascular endothelium and cells of neural origin to Epo provide evidence that the function of Epo as a growth factor or cytokine to protect cells from apoptosis extends beyond the hematopoietic lineage. We now report that the EpoR is expressed on myoblasts and can mediate a biological response of these cells to treatment with Epo. Primary murine satellite cells and myoblast C2C12 cells, both of which express endogenous EpoR, exhibit a proliferative response to Epo and a marked decrease in terminal differentiation to form myotubes. We also observed that Epo stimulation activates Jak2/Stat5 signal transduction and increases cytoplasmic calcium, which is dependent on tyrosine phosphorylation. In erythroid progenitor cells, Epo stimulates induction of transcription factor GATA-1 and EpoR; in C2C12 cells, GATA-3 and EpoR expression are induced. The decrease in differentiation of C2C12 cells is concomitant with an increase in Myf-5 and MyoD expression and inhibition of myogenin induction during differentiation, altering the pattern of expression of the MyoD family of transcription factors during muscle differentiation. These data suggest that, rather than acting in an instructive or specific mode for differentiation, Epo can stimulate proliferation of myoblasts to expand the progenitor population during differentiation and may have a potential role in muscle development or repair.

Cyclic AMP activates p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in Th2 cells: phosphorylation of GATA-3 and stimulation of Th2 cytokine gene expression

cAMP is an important second messenger with immunomodulatory properties. Elevation of intracellular cAMP in T cells, induced by agents such as IL-1alpha or PGs, inhibits T cell activation. In effector T cells, an increase in the level of intracellular cAMP inhibits cytokine production in Th1 cells but stimulates cytokine production in Th2 cells. Here we report that cAMP-induced effects in Th2 cells occur independently of the protein kinase A pathway, which is the major mediator of cAMP-induced signaling events in most cell types. Instead, cAMP stimulates activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in Th2 cells. This appears to be a Th2-selective event because cAMP barely increased p38 phosphorylation in Th1 cells. We show that in Th2 cells, cAMP promotes the production of both IL-5 and IL-13, which play distinct but critical roles in asthma pathogenesis. Our data also show that cAMP causes increased phosphorylation of the transcription factor GATA-3, which we have shown is a critical regulator of Th2 cytokine gene expression and, in turn, of airway inflammation in mice. Thus, Th2-specific GATA-3 expression and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation together provide a molecular basis for the differential effects of cAMP in the two T helper cell subsets.

Genomic organization, chromosomal localization, and the complete 22 kb DNA sequence of the human GCMa/GCM1, a placenta-specific transcription factor gene

The genomic sequence of the human GCMa/GCM1 gene, a mammalian homologue of Drosophila melanogaster GCM, was determined. Drosophila GCM is a neural transcription factor that regulates glial cell fate. The mammalian homolog however, is a placenta-specific transcription factor that is necessary for placental development. The 22 kb DNA sequence spanning the GCMa gene contains six exons and five introns, encoding a 2.8 kb cDNA. Overall genomic organization is similar for the human and mouse. Several potential binding sites for transcription factors like GATA, Oct-1, and bHLH proteins were found in the 5'-flanking region of the human gene. A DNA motif for GCM protein binding exists in the 5'-flanking region that is highly homologous with that of the mouse gene. The location of this gene was mapped to chromosome 6 using fluorescence in situ hybridization.

Cutting edge: TGF-beta inhibits Th type 2 development through inhibition of GATA-3 expression

TGF-beta is an important immunomodulatory cytokine that can inhibit differentiation of effector T cells. In this report, we address the molecular mechanisms through which TGF-beta inhibits differentiation of CD4(+) cells into Th type 2 cells. We demonstrate that TGF-beta inhibits GATA-3 expression in developing Th cells. We also show that inhibition of GATA-3 expression by TGF-beta is a major mechanism of inhibition of Th2 differentiation by TGF-beta as ectopic expression of GATA-3 in developing T cells overcomes the ability of TGF-beta to inhibit Th2 differentiation. TGF-beta likely inhibits GATA-3 expression at the transcriptional level and does so without interfering with IL-4 signaling.

Dendritic cells conditionally transformed by v-relER oncogene express lymphoid marker genes

The initiation of primary immune responses is the key function of specialized antigen presenting cells, the dendritic cells (DC). DC of myeloid origin capture antigens in tissues, migrate to lymphoid organs and stimulate T cell responses. A subset of DC has been described which expresses lymphoid determinants and has potential regulatory functions. Conditional transformation of chicken bone marrow progenitors with v-relER, a v-rel estrogen receptor (ER) fusion gene, allows expansion of progenitors that can be induced to differentiate into DC in vitro. In this paper we describe that v-relER cells exhibit both myeloid and lymphoid surface markers, while B cell, T cell and NK (natural killer)-specific surface markers are absent. v-relER DC express, however, cytoplasmic CD3 protein and mRNA for CD8alpha and the lymphoid transcription factor GATA-3. These data suggest that v-relER DC might be related to the lymphoid subset of DC described in mammals.

Identification and characterization of SKAT-2, a novel Th2-specific zinc finger gene

We have identified a novel Kruppel-type zinc finger (ZF) gene, SKAT-2, which is selectively expressed by murine Th2 cells. The protein encoded by this gene has 14 C2H2-type ZF tandemly arrayed at its C terminus and N-terminal SCAN box and KRAB domains. SKAT-2 is tissue restricted in expression at the RNA level, detectable only in brain and at low levels in kidney and spleen and few hematopoietic cell lines. By in situ hybridization, SKAT-2 expression was found to peak in antigen-stimulated CD4(+) T cells after 2-3 days of culture under Th2 but not Th1 biasing conditions. This pattern of expression closely mirrored that of GATA-3 in the same cells. In transient transfection experiments in phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate/ionomycin-stimulated EL4 cells, SKAT-2 was found to up-regulate the activity of the IL-4 but not the IL-5 promoter, contrasting with the ability of GATA-3 to activate both promoters. This result was confirmed using clones of EL4 cells stably expressing an inducible form of SKAT-2, thus SKAT-2 is a novel Th2-specific gene that may play a role in selective regulation of cytokine genes in T cells.

Prethymic progenitors from the avian para-aortic mesoderm express GATA-3 and distinct chTcf isoforms but still lack T-cell receptor-gamma rearrangements

Haematopoietic precursors first colonizing the avian embryonic thymus are derived from the intraembryonic sites located around the dorsal aortae. These intraembryonic precursors have previously been demonstrated to include cells that harbour T-cell progenitor capacity and express the Ikaros transcription factor, known to be a prerequisite for lymphocyte development. In this study, we further evaluated the properties of these prethymic cells. We show that early intraembryonic cells and prethymic progenitors already express the GATA-3 transcription factor. The chicken homologue of T-cell factor-1, chTcf, is also detected in cells isolated from the avian para-aortic region. However, these intraembryonic cells retain their T-cell receptor gamma loci in germline configuration. Interestingly, chTcf was found to express different alternatively spliced isoforms during early ontogeny and thymic T-cell development, which indicates developmentally regulated expression of chTcf variants. Taken together, these results demonstrate that, although the avian prethymic progenitor cells express T-lineage-associated transcription factors, they have not yet undergone TCR rearrangements. It is therefore suggested that activation of lineage-associated genes is an early event in the generation of haematopoietic progenitor cells during ontogeny.

Function of GATA transcription factors in preadipocyte-adipocyte transition

Genes that control the early stages of adipogenesis remain largely unknown. Here, we show that murine GATA-2 and GATA-3 are specifically expressed in white adipocyte precursors and that their down-regulation sets the stage for terminal differentiation. Constitutive GATA-2 and GATA-3 expression suppressed adipocyte differentiation and trapped cells at the preadipocyte stage. This effect is mediated, at least in part, through the direct suppression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma. GATA-3-deficient embryonic stem cells exhibit an enhanced capacity to differentiate into adipocytes, and defective GATA-2 and GATA-3 expression is associated with obesity. Thus, GATA-2 and GATA-3 regulate adipocyte differentiation through molecular control of the preadipocyte-adipocyte transition.

A role for GATA transcription factors in the androgen regulation of the prostate-specific antigen gene enhancer

The transgenic mouse line Ggamma/T-15 containing the fetal globin promoter linked to SV40 T antigen unexpectedly results in androgen-independent prostate carcinomas. Given the key role of GATA-1 transcription factor in fetal globin gene promoter activity, we investigated whether specific GATA family members are expressed in the prostate and whether they can regulate prostate-specific genes. We found that GATA-2 and -3 are the predominant GATA family members expressed in human and mouse prostate and that GATA mRNA levels are not regulated by androgen. We identified six GATA sites flanking an androgen-response element located in the far-upstream enhancer of the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) gene. These GATA sites are targets for GATA factors and are essential for optimal androgen induction of transfected PSA enhancer/promoter plasmids in LNCaP, a PSA and androgen receptor expressing human prostate cancer cell line. Our results suggest that prostatic GATA-2 and -3 are involved in the androgen regulation of the PSA gene.