Cognitive strategies of university athletes

Thirty-six college basketball players and skiers, both men and women, were interviewed about their use of cognitive processes to prepare themselves for competition. The interviews examined cognitive techniques for enhancing motor skills and developing competitive strategies. During the interviews the subjects engaged in some of their cognitive preparation strategies and then described the details of these experiences. All athletes reported that the use of cognitive strategies enhanced their performance. Their imagery was rich, detailed, and multisensory. An average of three sensory modalities were present in the imagery. Vision, kinesthesis, and touch were the most common sensory experiences reported, but audition, taste, and smell were also experienced by some athletes. Strong affective states, especially confidence and satisfaction, accompanied the imagery. Individual differences in the imagery used by the athletes were also found and may be related to individual differences in the athletes' cognitive styles.

Chest pain and shortness of breath in a collegiate basketball player: case report and literature review

An 18-yr-old college freshman basketball player at a Division I university suffered chest pain, dyspnea, and dizziness followed by syncope while running a 400-m dash. After an extensive multidisciplinary workup that eliminated all organic causes, the patient, an only child from a remote rural area, was found to be suffering from panic attacks with mild features of agoraphobia. Exertional chest pain is a common complaint in young athletes. The etiologies are myriad and can be referable to many organ systems; however, the cause is usually benign. Psychogenic origin is uncommon but must be considered when organic causes have been ruled out and the patient's social history is suggestive.

Returning injured athletes to competition: a role and ethical dilemma

This study investigated the extent to which decisions by coaches and athletic trainers concerning the return of injured athletes to competition were influenced by the player's status and the game situation. Samples were drawn from Oregon high school and Canadian university basketball teams. Coaches and athletic trainers completed a questionnaire in which they decided whether an injured player should be returned to competition. The scenarios included winning, losing, or close games and involved a starter, first substitute, or bench player. Chi-square analyses revealed that coaches made decisions based on both a player's status and the game situation. In contrast, athletic trainers' decisions were not significantly influenced by these variables. Since the role of the coach seemingly makes it difficult to make health related decisions concerning injured players, athletic trainers should be responsible for such decisions.

Dynamics of wheelchair basketball

A sport model wheelchair instrumented with a portable computer and a switch activated with each half revolution of a rear wheel was used to record serial time and distance data on two subjects (1 male, 1 female) during a portion of a basketball game. These and two additional subjects (1 male, 1 female) also completed a series of coast down and maximal sprint trials on the basketball court. The drag force while coasting was positively related to the mass of the subject, and the male subjects had a higher maximal speed, acceleration, force, and power output in the sprint trials. During the wheelchair basketball game, it was estimated that 64% of the time was spent in propulsive action and 36% in braking activity. Projections for a complete 40 minute game indicated that both subjects would travel about 5 km at an average speed of 2 m.s-1 and attain a peak speed of 4 m.s-1. Plots of speed and power vs time showed the intermittent nature of playing wheelchair basketball. The greater amount of propulsive work (52.6 vs 37.5 kJ) and braking ("negative") work (43.9 vs 30.8 kJ) in a game for the male subject can be related to the male's higher body mass and wheelchair drag force.

Association of eye color and sex with basketball free throws by elementary school children

Dark-eyed individuals perform reactive activities better while light-eyed individuals generally perform self-paced activities better. There were 68 (21 dark- and 47 light-eyed) elementary school children who shot 5 practice and then 15 free throws from the free-throw line in a high school gym. There were no differences in performance between light- and dark-eyed children, but boys scored more free throws than girls.

Effects of participation in a collegiate sport season on body composition

Fifty-three collegiate athletes (18 female and 35 male) were recruited from university varsity basketball, football, swim, and wrestling team rosters. Body composition was estimated before the beginning and before the end of sport seasons by using hydrodensitometry to determine the effect of participation in competitive sport seasons on the body composition of collegiate athletes. ANOVAs applied to the estimates of body composition indicated that the interaction of sport team by season was significant for body weight, F (5,47) = 3.2, p less than 0.05; fat weight, F (5,47) = 5.1, p less than 0.01; and fat-free weight, F (5,47) = 2.4, p less than 0.05. Only football players did not change in body composition. Wrestlers lost the greatest amount of body weight (3.4 kg). Female and male basketball players, female and male swimmers, and wrestlers lost significant amounts of body fat (2.6, 2.3, 1.8, 2.7, and 3.6 kg, respectively). Female and male basketball players and female and male swimmers gained significant amounts of fat-free weight (2.0, 1.6, 2.4, and 1.8 kg, respectively). It was concluded that participation in a collegiate sport season could affect changes in fat weight and fat-free weight components of body composition but that the nature of the changes are a function of the demands of the sport of participation.

Physiological characteristics of elite female basketball players

Successful performance in international basketball competition requires an appreciation of the physical demands of the sport and the capacities of the team to respond to those demands. Optimal performance now requires a combination of technical and tactical abilities as well as a high degree of physical fitness. The objectives of this study were to assess physiological components considered important to game performance in players selected to the national team roster in 1988 or 1989, and to use this information to describe the team and positional profiles. Data obtained from maximal treadmill tests, anthropometry, sprints, isokinetic dynamometry, and other tasks reflected those qualities required of elite players. In relation to previously reported data, the athletes were generally taller and heavier and had higher maximal aerobic power than international and college players of 7 to 10 years ago. The data can also be used to identify target standards for current and prospective team members.

Describing sport grounds: an investigation of 'functional' and 'acquaintance' familiarity

The present research was designed to investigate the concept of familiarity and how different kinds of familiarity could affect the coding and memory of places having specific and strong functional significance, i.e., sport courts. Tennis and basketball were selected. Users and nonusers of such sport courts had first to describe a sport court taking the necessary information from their stored schematic knowledge and then to describe a sport court previously seen in a photograph. Subjects' verbal reports showed a certain superiority of users' performance, a commonly found place effect, and the presence of errors only on the second task and mainly by the users group. The results are discussed in terms of the environmental schemata theory and of the different kinds of familiarity considered.

Basketball exercise and secretory immunoglobulin A

This study examined saliva levels of immunoglobulin A (IgA) before and after three games and three practice sessions during the basketball season. Saliva was collected from 27 prepubescent boys (10-12 years) in a small Fry league and 23 postpubescent boys (16-18 years) on a high school varsity team. Saliva samples were frozen for later assay using a standard enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique. IgA levels were significantly increased after games 1 and 3 in both age groups and after practice 3 in the high school athletes. Over the 2 months of saliva collections the pre-exercise IgA increased significantly with games 2 and 3 higher than game 1, and practice 3 higher than practices 1 and 2, in both age groups. These results indicate that basketball exercise can increase saliva IgA levels and that chronic exercise over the basketball season may increase the resting levels of IgA. These changes may give athletes more protection against respiratory infections both after exercise and in the resting state later in the season.

Immediate effect of weight training as compared to aerobic exercise on free-throw shooting in collegiate basketball players

This study empirically assessed the effect weight training has on the accuracy of free-throw shots immediately following a weight-training session. On On alternating days of the week for eight weeks, 14 members of a women's varsity intercollegiate basketball team engaged in a weight-training program and an aerobics exercise program. Each day immediately following the conditioning, the players shot two sets of 10 free throws. Analysis indicated no significant difference in free-throw shooting accuracy as a function of weight training when compared to the aerobic exercise, suggesting that the immediate effects of weight training are no more detrimental or beneficial for free-throw shooting than aerobic exercise.

Force production characteristics of leg extensor, trunk flexor and extensor muscles in male and female basketball players

Eleven male and nine female basketball players from two teams at the same relative competitive level were studied for the force production characteristics of their leg extensor, trunk flexor and extensor muscles. As expected, the male players demonstrated greater (p less than 0.001) absolute maximal strength in the three muscle groups than the females. When the force values were related to body weight, the differences became smaller but the male group could still produce higher values especially for the trunk flexor (p less than 0.01) and extensor muscles (p less than 0.05). The males demonstrated higher (p less than 0.001) values than the females for maximal vertical jumping height both in the squat jump (41.5 +/- 3.0 and 21.5 +/- 2.4 cm) and in the counter movement jump (43.9 +/- 4.0 and 24.8 +/- 2.5 cm). As expected, the times required to produce the same absolute force levels in the isometric force-time curves were significantly (p less than 0.001) shorter in the male team than in the female. However, the times needed to produce the same relative force levels were also shorter (p less than 0.05) in the male group. In the whole subject sample the individual values in maximal leg extension force correlated significantly (p less than 0.001) with the vertical jumping height. The present results suggest that the differences observed in force production characteristics between the male and female groups may not be explained only by the sexual difference but also by the differences in the overall volume and/or the type of strength and power training during the preparatory training season(s).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Age differences in the performance of basketball dribbling by elementary school boys

Age differences in hand contact time and ball-to-floor distance during the performance of a basketball dribbling task by 30 5- to 6-, 7- to 8-, and 9- to 10-yr.-old boys were studied. Each age group included 10 boys, five with high rhythm audiation skill and five with low rhythm audiation skill, as measured on Gordon's Primary or Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation. Performance during eight bounces was filmed with a 16-mm camera and analyzed with a stop-action projector. Analysis of variance indicated no statistically significant differences. Observed dribbling behaviors are discussed.

The structural, functional, and nutritional adaptation of college basketball players over a season

The purpose of this study was to determine the structural, functional and nutritional adaptation of college basketball players over a season. Structure was determined by somatotype and body composition, function was determined by peak work capacity and work efficiency, and nutrition was determined by plasma metals analysis. The tests were performed twice on each of the eight subjects, one preseason (PRS) and one postseason (PST). A small structural adaptation was indicated by a mean decrease (less than 1 kg) in fat free weight and an increase in ectomorphy (less than 0.03). Body weight and skinfolds did not change significantly. Functional adaptation was indicated by a one minute decrease in running time for the work capacity test (p less than 0.002), and an increase (p less than 0.02) in VO2 for the work efficiency test. Nutritional adaptation was indicated by a greater mobilization of plasma Zn after exercise during PST than PRS. Plasma Cu apparently was mobilized during exercise in PST but the change during the season (-10 to -6.6%) was not statistically significant because of the large interindividual variability in response. Structural and functional adaptation to basketball training over a collegiate season is small; however, the change in Zn mobility and the tendency for a concomitant change in Cu mobilization offers a unique finding to help explain the nutritional adaptation to training.

Anthropometric, body composition and performance variables of young elite female basketball players

The purpose of the study was to determine the physique and body composition of young female basketball players and to examine these variables in relation to their playing position. Eighteen members of the under seventeen England Basketball squad were measured on twenty different anthropometric sites from which somatotype and body composition were calculated. Four performance measures, vertical jump, anaerobic power, right and left grip strength and laterality were also measured. The variables of the basketball players grouped according to playing position were then compared statistically using ANOVA. Centres had the largest measures of physique and body composition followed by the forwards and then the guards. These differences were significant, particularly between the centres and the guards. The centres were much taller, had longer limb lengths, hip widths and were more muscular.

A catastrophe model of anxiety and performance

An experiment is reported which tests Fazey & Hardy's (1988) catastrophe model of anxiety and performance. Eight experienced basketball players were required to perform a set shooting task, under conditions of high and low cognitive anxiety. On each of these occasions, physiological arousal was manipulated by means of physical work in such a way that subjects were tested with physiological arousal increasing and decreasing. Curve-fitting procedures followed by non-parametric tests of significance confirmed (p less than .002) Fazey & Hardy's hysteresis hypothesis: namely, that the polynomial curves for the increasing vs. decreasing arousal conditions would be horizontally displaced relative to each other in the high cognitive anxiety condition, but superimposed on top of one another in the low cognitive anxiety condition. Other non-parametric procedures showed that subjects' maximum performances were higher, their minimum performances lower, and their critical decrements in performance greater in the high cognitive anxiety condition than in the low cognitive anxiety condition. These results were taken as strong support for Fazey & Hardy's catastrophe model of anxiety and performance. The implications of the model for current theorizing on the anxiety-performance relationship are also discussed.

Dynamic characteristics of a sport wheelchair

A single subject performed 36 coast-down trials on a hardwood floor in a sport model wheelchair with velocity ranging from 1.28 to 5.31 m/s (4.6 to 19.1 km/h). A portable computer attached to the wheelchair was used to record the time to the nearest 0.001-second of each half-revolution of a rear wheel. The deceleration during each trial was determined with an average coefficient of variation of 2.6 percent from linear regression of velocity versus time values. A significant relationship (r = 0.97) between deceleration and the square of the velocity was noted in an analysis of the values from the 36 trials. Total drag force and power was calculated as a function of wheelchair velocity from this relationship, indicating that the power output needed to propel the wheelchair increased as a function of the velocity cubed. It is speculated that this noted exponential increase in the energy cost of wheelchair propulsion at higher speeds was due mainly to an increase in air drag.

Catecholamine-sensitive right ventricular tachycardia in the absence of structural heart disease: a mechanism of exercise-induced cardiac arrest

A case of exercise-induced cardiac arrest secondary to catecholamine-sensitive right ventricular tachycardia in the absence of apparent structural heart disease is presented. Amiodarone therapy prevented tachycardia induction, symptoms and clinical events despite a return to vigorous exercise.

A comparison of smokeless tobacco and smoking practices of university varsity and intramural baseball players

To examine the smokeless tobacco (ST) and smoking practices of collegiate varsity and intramural baseball players, 284 undergraduate athletes at two major Southwestern universities were surveyed using a questionnaire previously developed to measure use among this population. About one-fourth of all athletes were current ST users and 4% smokers. Over half of varsity players (53%) compared to 25.9% of intramural players used one or both forms of ST. Varsity players were about 20 times more likely to use ST as to smoke, while intramural players were about five times as likely to use ST than to smoke. On both teams, use of chewing tobacco was associated with use of snuff. Smoking was not associated with ST use in either group. Mean ages for initiation for all products was 15, and for quitting, 18. There was no evidence that one form of tobacco served as a gateway for the other among these young adult athletes. Over a fourth of all users started after age 17, suggesting that college is an appropriate locus for both ST prevention and cessation programming. Such programs for this population must address the unique characteristics of the social environment in collegiate baseball.

Comparison of wheelchair athletes and nonathletes on selected mood states

The Profile of Mood States was administered to two groups of male university students in wheelchairs. Both the 26 wheelchair athletes and the 28 wheelchair nonathletes exhibited the iceberg profile associated with positive mental health. Multivariate analysis indicated that wheelchair athletes had a significantly lower score on Depression than the wheelchair nonathletes but all scores were in the normal range.

Bone density in eumenorrheic female college athletes

Information is limited on the effect of exercise on bone density in young eumenorrheic athletes. We studied 12 Caucasian intercollegiate volleyball players (V), nine basketball players (B), ten swimmers (S), and 13 non-athletes (N) with bone density measurements by photon absorptiometry of their calcaneus and lumbar spine (L2-L4). The effect of athletic status on bone density was analyzed by multivariate analysis of covariance, with height and weight as covariates. The bone densities reported below are mean +/- SE, adjusted for the covariates; units = g.cm-2, P less than 0.005. The swimmers had a significantly lower mean density in the lumbar spine than all other groups; the non-athletes' mean density was also lower than that of volleyball players (V = 1.31 +/- 0.03, B = 1.26 +/- 0.04, N = 1.18 +/- 0.03, S = 1.05 +/- 0.03). The volleyball and basketball players' mean calcaneal densities were greater than those of the swimmers and non-athletes (V = 0.530 +/- 0.017, B = 0.564 +/- 0.023, N = 0.438 +/- 0.018, S = 0.375 +/- 0.019). The higher bone densities for athletes in vertical weight-bearing activities are consistent with some but not all published data. The swimmers' low bone density in the lumbar spine, less than published values for amenorrheic runners, was unexpected.

Exercise-induced purpura

A 11-year-old boy developed purpura on the back and chest on more than 5 occasions following vigorous exercise. This eruption should be added to the list of differential diagnosis of the dermatosis experienced by athletes.

Kinematics of sport wheelchair propulsion

Eight international caliber wheelchair male athletes (3 basketball, 5 distance track) performed an all-out propulsion effort from a standing start for 10 seconds on a wheelchair ergometer. Comparisons between the basketball and track athletes on linear wheelchair and push rim velocity during the first 3 pushes and the peak value indicated that the basketball players had a significantly (p less than .05) higher push rim velocity throughout the effort and a higher wheelchair velocity only at the end of the first push. The track athletes attained a significantly higher peak wheelchair velocity. Graphical comparison of the best individual basketball and track athletes' performances indicated that the track athletes caught up to the basketball players after about 3.7 seconds or 12 meters and travelled 49 meters in the 10 seconds, compared to 37 meters for the basketball players. Differences in push rim and wheel diameter are considered the major factor in the noted differences in propulsion kinematics of basketball and track wheelchairs.

The effect of a competitive season on the body composition of university female athletes

Fifty-six NCAA Division I female athletes (age +/- SD = 19.82 +/- 0.59 years) from the swimming (SW), track (TR), volleyball (VB), gymnastics (GYM) and basketball (BB) teams were measured preseason and postseason to determine the effects of a season's training on their body composition. Body density (BD), relative fat (RF), fat-weight (FW), and fat-free weight (FFW) were obtained via hydrostatic weighing. The TR and GYM athletes showed significant increases and the VB players significant decreases in BD and FFW across season, respectively. No significant changes were found for the SW and BB teams. Preseason comparisons showed greater BD for TR than for BB, VB or SW. The GYM and VB had lower BD values than SW. Fat-free weight was higher in BB and VB teams, while TR and SW teams had greater FFW than GM. The BB, VB and SW teams had greater preseason FW than the TR and GYM groups. Postseason comparisons showed greater BD in TR and GYM than in the other three groups. Although FW differences were consistent with preseason data, all groups differed significantly in FFW with BB players having the greatest amount followed by VB, SW, TR and GYM.

Age of menarche in Indian female basketball and volleyball players at different competitive levels

Data for the age of menarche have been collected on 98 female volleyball players and 75 basketball players. The players belonged to four different levels of competition: international, national, intervarsity and district. Menarche is significantly delayed in players as compared with the controls. There is a continuous trend of increase in the age of menarche with the increasing levels of competition; menarche is more delayed in players playing at a higher level than those at the lower levels of competition.

Partial tears of the anterior cruciate ligament. Progression to complete ligament deficiency

In a prospective seven-year study, we treated 32 patients with partial ruptures of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) verified by arthroscopy. Twelve knees (38%) progressed to complete ACL deficiency with positive pivot shift tests and increased anteroposterior translation on tests with the KT-1000 arthrometer. Patients with partial ACL tears frequently had limitation for strenuous sports, while those developing ACL deficiency had additional functional limitations involving recreational activities. Three factors were statistically significant in predicting which partial tears would develop complete ACL deficiency: the amount of ligament tearing--one-fourth tears infrequently progressed, one-half tears progressed in 50% and three-fourth tears in 86%; a subtle increase in initial anterior translation; and the occurrence of a subsequent re-injury with giving-way.

Sports injuries in a high school

A 1-year study was undertaken investigating all sports injuries at a large high school. A total of 1283 student athletes participated in sports and suffered 280 injuries for an overall injury rate of 22%. The largest injury rate was in football (61%) followed by girls and boys gymnastics, wrestling, and boys basketball. Five sports had no injuries--boys' tennis, golf, boys' and girls' swimming, and girls' water polo. Severity of injury was measured by number of days lost per injury. Girls' track had the greatest number of days lost per injury (320) followed by girls' basketball, girls' cross country, boys' track, and boys' wrestling. Sprains and strains accounted for 57% of all injuries. Of the injured athletes, 87 were seen by a physician and only 5 athletes required surgery. The small number of serious injuries requiring surgery suggests that a motivated and competent pediatrician can play an integral role as a team physician.

Detection of stress fractures in athletes and nonathletes

Stress fractures are considered a relatively common athletic injury. Some authors also feel this disorder may be overlooked in many nonathletic patients. Three cases of stress fractures are presented. All had classical clinical pictures; however, two were athletes and one was not. The athletes' stress fractures were suspected early in the disease evolution, confirmed with a bone scan and proper care instituted to prevent extended morbidity. The nonathlete's case was misdiagnosed by another practitioner and allowed to progress to the level of a true fracture. Extended morbidity followed this case. The infrequent report of nonathlete stress fractures in the literature may have played a major role in this oversight. Stress fractures do occur in athletes and nonathletes. The history is the key to making an early diagnosis. Scintigraphy (bone scan) or plain films may be used to confirm the diagnosis and rule out other disorders.

Ritual and free-throw shooting in basketball

The purpose of this study was to determine the nature and effect of certain highly patterned behaviours utilized prior to free-throw shooting in basketball. Ten female basketball players comprising the varsity squad of Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas, USA served as subjects for this study. Subjects were filmed with a high-speed camera and monitored for heart rate during the performance of 10 free throws in each of two conditions: ritual and non-ritual. For the ritual condition, subjects were given unlimited time and freedom of movement prior to each free-throw attempt. For the non-ritual condition, subjects were not restricted by time, but were instructed to shoot the ball without utilizing any movements other than those required to project the ball to the goal. Dependent measures were characteristics of behaviours, physiological changes measured by heart rates, mechanical data (speed, height and angle of release), and number of successful attempts. Condition x trials analyses of variance and low standard deviation concerning characteristics of behaviours indicated that the idiosyncratic behaviours prior to free-throw shooting were rituals of the auto-communicative type. Results indicated no significant difference between conditions for free-throw success. However, partial correlation between dependent measures and successful free-throw attempts indicated that duration of behaviours was most crucial to free-throw shooting success.

Evaluation of oculomotor response in relationship to sports performance

This study describes a unique testing method which correlates the speed of oculomotor response with athletic performance, injury, and rehabilitation. The test board is a 6 x 6-foot platform with a central 18-inch square panel and four differently colored 18-inch square panels located right, left, fore, and aft. In response to color cues from the computer monitor, the test subject moves to similarly colored squares on the platform returning to the central square as rapidly as possible. On return to this central panel, a new color is generated from a random series. The test subject again moves to the colored platform corresponding to the color indicated on the monitor until a series of 30 repetitions is completed. The groups tested were high school football and basketball, college football and basketball, and professional football teams. No statistically significant differences were noted between football and basketball. There was a significant difference between professional and amateur response times (P = 0.0001). Fifty percent of 180 amateur athletes had a response time greater than 2 SD slower than professional athletes. The response times may, therefore, be useful in determining athletic potential.

Coaches' goals for young children in a recreational sports program

Almost all children participate in sports at some time, and programs are being established for even younger children. Adults who coach the children largely determine what the children's sports experience will be. Coaches' perceptions of what is important for the young children they instruct have not yet been carefully investigated. This study was designed, therefore, to determine coaches' goals for young children. Data were gathered by use of an attitude questionnaire administered to 29 coaches of a recreational basketball program of children ranging in age from 6 to 10 years old. Of the 12 goals, feeling part of a team, learning to do my best, and having fun and excitement were most highly rated as extremely important, while becoming popular was lowest rated as not important. Results revealed that coaches in general are able to clearly define their goals and priorities, and these goals seem developmentally appropriate for the children. However, coaches make little differentiation in goals based on age.

Psychiatric aspects of basketball

This article presents a theory of the psychology of basketball from three perspectives: individual psychodynamics, family systems interactions and athlete-community relationships. It focuses on the differences between functional and dysfunctional individual and team performance. Maximal individual performance usually requires relatively high levels of cognitive and physical skills, while team performance depends on having individuals with the interpersonal skills necessary to create the chemistry mandatory for the shared decision making called teamwork.

Head-up tilt table evaluation in a trained athlete with recurrent vaso-vagal syncope

A 27-year-old trained athlete with recurrent syncope of suspected vaso-vagal origin was evaluated. A 60 degrees head-up tilt table test reproducibly triggered the patient's spontaneous symptoms and allowed the investigation of different modalities of therapy (medical and pacing) in preventing syncopal episodes. The head-up tilt table test may be a useful tool in the evaluation of syncope of vaso-vagal origin, helping to determine the initial precipitating vagal event and the effect of therapy.

Game standings and psychological crisis in sport: theory and research

Individual psychological crisis in competitive situations negatively affects motor performance. Psychological crisis development is probabilistically defined for every moment of the competition. This study estimates the effect of game standings defined interactively by three components: direction of lead, tendency, and event's expectancy, upon crisis vulnerability of a basketball player. Twenty-eight top basketball experts responded to a 'Game Standing Questionnaire' in which they were asked to assess probabilistically the relevance of game standings to crisis development. The Bayesian likelihood ratio was applied to these estimates. Results revealed that game standings have a considerable diagnostic relevance with regard to the development of an individual competitive psychological crisis. Furthermore, a negative tendency, a lead by the opposing team, and an unexpected event are more likely to occur under crisis conditions than under non-crisis conditions. Various aspects related to the validation and the practical applicability of the study are discussed.

Effects of preshot routine on free-throw shooting

The effect of prohibiting the use of a preshot routine on free-throw shooting in competitive situations was investigated. 25 male high school basketball players were instructed to attempt 50 free throws alternating in blocks of 10 between the use of their preshot routine and shooting without it. To make the situation competitive, subjects were run in groups of five and their performance was recorded on a large easel placed to the side of the free-throw line. A significantly larger number of baskets were made in the preshot routine condition than without the routine. A competitive situation led to a greater decrement in baskets than had been reported in 1986 by Lobmeyer and Wassermen during noncompetitive free-throw shooting.

Orofacial trauma and mouth-protector wear among high school varsity basketball players

This investigation surveyed the prevalence and types of orofacial injuries among 1020 Florida high school basketball players during one season; it also examined the prevalence and types of mouth protectors used and their influence on sustained injuries. The results demonstrated a relatively high prevalence of players (31 percent) reporting orofacial trauma suffered during the organized playing of basketball. Most players reporting orofacial trauma indicated they received multiple injuries during the season. Only a small percentage (4.2 percent) of the basketball players surveyed reported use of mouth protectors and this use was exclusively voluntary. Those players not wearing mouth protectors reported an approximately seven-fold increase in orofacial injuries; most involved trauma to the soft tissue. Many objections were cited to the use of mouth protectors by the players, which must be overcome if compliance with future mandatory wear is recommended. Results of this survey suggest that further investigation into orofacial injuries among basketball players should be pursued.

MRI of the athletic knee. Findings in asymptomatic professional basketball and collegiate football players

For the dedicated athlete in whom minor injuries are frequent and major injuries relatively common, a noninvasive knee assessment could either obviate the need for arthroscopy or focus its direction. The opportunity to study asymptomatic athletes was not feasible before the advent of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In this preliminary work, we examined 40 knees in 20 asymptomatic volunteer athletes, including five professional basketball players and 15 collegiate football players. Images were obtained at 0.5 T or 1.5 T. Spin echo sequences were used to obtain 5.0 mm thick coronal and sagittal sections. Fifty percent of asymptomatic athletes (10/20) had significant baseline MRI abnormalities that could have adversely affected scan interpretation in the context of an acute injury. Half of these athletes with MRI abnormalities, or 25% of the total (5/20), had no previous surgery and were unaware of significant injury.

"Flipped" patterns of lactate dehydrogenase isoenzymes in serum of elite college basketball players

We kinetically measured total lactate dehydrogenase (LD, EC 1.1.1.27), total creatine kinase (CK, EC 2.7.3.2), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST, EC 2.6.1.1.) in 16 elite college basketball players, before the competition season and not in close temporal relation to near-maximal exercise, and in 17 healthy non-athlete controls. LD isoenzymes were determined by both electrophoretic and immunoprecipitation methods. CK-MB isoenzyme was measured electrophoretically. We found significantly higher mean LD-1 values and LD-1/LD-2 ratios in the players than the controls: 31.6 (SD 3.7)% vs 25.8 (SD 3.2)% (P less than 0.005) and 1.1 (SD 0.13) vs 0.87 (SD 0.16) (P less than 0.001), respectively. A "flipped" LD pattern (LD-1 greater than LD-2) was found in half the players and in six of the eight black athletes, but in only two of the control group and in none of the black controls. Mean CK activity in serum exceeded normal values in the serum of the athletes and was higher in comparison with the control group [274 (SD 156) vs 103 (SD 82) U/L]. Mean CK was significantly higher in the eight athletes with the flipped LD pattern than in those with LD-1 less than LD-2 [322 (SD 163) vs 180 (SD 98) U/L; P = 0.05], and also in comparison with CK in the two controls with flipped LD pattern. We saw no significant difference in mean CK between the nine players with normal immunochemical LD-1/LD ratios and the seven players with above-normal ratios. CK-MB was not detected in either athletes or controls. None of the players had any clinical or electrocardiographic evidence for myocardial ischemia or infarction. Evidently the flipped LD pattern usually found in patients with acute myocardial infarction and reported in some athletes after extreme exercise such as ultra-marathon running may also be found in athletes who are in their "basal fitness shape" but who are not involved in competitive physical activity.

Comparison of maxillofacial and dental injuries in four contact team sports: American football, bandy, basketball, and handball

Maxillofacial and dental injuries were studied in registered players of American football, bandy, basketball, and handball in Finland between 1979 and 1985. In American football, where facial protection is complete and mandatory, maxillofacial and dental accidents accounted for only 1.4% of all accidents. In bandy, where facial protection was inadequate during the time of study (only the helmet and extraoral mouth protector were mandatory), the respective figure was 10.6%. The most frequent causes of injury were a blow from another player (in American football, basketball, and handball) or a blow from the stick (in bandy). In American football, the mean cost of treatment related to maxillofacial and dental injuries was only 60% of the mean total cost of all injuries. In contrast, the mean cost of treatment for maxillofacial and dental injuries in basketball and bandy was twice and three times as high, respectively, as that for all injuries. The need for adequate facial protection in contact sports is also discussed.

Simultaneous bilateral tibial tubercle avulsion fracture

Bilateral simultaneous tibial tubercle avulsion fractures are extremely rare. The present case was a 16-year-old boy who sustained bilateral simultaneous tibial tubercle avulsion fractures (Watson-Jones Type III) from jumping while playing basketball. Both fractures were treated successfully by open reduction and internal fixation with screws. Three years later, the patient had the screws removed because of knee pain and tenderness over the screws.

Traumatic manubriosternal joint subluxations in two basketball players

Two cases of traumatic manubriosternal joint subluxation without rib fractures in basketball players are illustrated. The incidence of this sport injury is rare. Accidental or intentional violent blows of the elbow to the body of the sternum is the mechanism of this injury. Radiographic analysis of the manubriosternal joint is discussed. Radiographically, the body of the sternum in each case has subluxated posteriorly. The athletes present pain directly at the manubriosternal joint; this may be aggravated by active thoracic hyperflexion or hyperextension. Ordinary or deep breathing does not cause discomfort. Palpation may reveal local tenderness that will be accentuated by ballottement against the manubrium. Conservative treatment consists of manipulative hyperflexion reduction supplemented with antiinflammatory or analgesic cream, cryotherapy, taping or with pad, strapping and rest.

The shock attenuation role of the ankle during landing from a vertical jump

Three landing surfaces were used to examine a hypothesized increased shock attenuation role of the ankle with increased damping demands. Eleven male recreational basketball players performed three symmetric barefoot countermovement vertical jumps on each surface. Two externally mounted low mass accelerometers (medial calcaneus and distal anterio-medial tibia), a piezoelectric force platform, and high speed cinematography recorded the landing. Accelerometer signal distortion was corrected through the application of a linear spring/damper model of the accelerometer attachment. The model indicated that raw acceleration data were overestimated 68% at the calcaneal attachment and 8% at the tibial attachment. Peak corrected acceleration at metatarsal contact varied little across landing surfaces, and, across surfaces, mean (SD) peak accelerations of 20.8 (9.3) and 14.3 (3.6) g's were recorded at the calcaneus and tibia, respectively. Peak vertical force and ankle joint motion varied little across the surfaces, suggesting that the entrenched kinematics of landing surpassed the introduced range of surface cushioning. Separation of the data by post-metatarsal contact landing style indicated that seven subjects landed with heel contact, with the remaining four attenuating the impact without heel contact. By avoiding the transient associated with the cessation of downward heel motion, the nonheel contact landers effectively reduced exposure to transients by nearly 50%.