Computerized video time lapse study of cell cycle delay and arrest, mitotic catastrophe, apoptosis and clonogenic survival in irradiated 14-3-3sigma and CDKN1A (p21) knockout cell lines

Computerized video time lapse (CVTL) microscopy was used to observe cellular events induced by ionizing radiation (10-12 Gy) in nonclonogenic cells of the wild-type HCT116 colorectal carcinoma cell line and its three isogenic derivative lines in which p21 (CDKN1A), 14-3-3sigma or both checkpoint genes (double-knockout) had been knocked out. Cells that fused after mitosis or failed to complete mitosis were classified together as cells that underwent mitotic catastrophe. Seventeen percent of the wild-type cells and 34-47% of the knockout cells underwent mitotic catastrophe to enter generation 1 with a 4N content of DNA, i.e., the same DNA content as irradiated cells arrested in G(2) at the end of generation 0. Radiation caused a transient division delay in generation 0 before the cells divided or underwent mitotic catastrophe. Compared with the division delay for wild-type cells that express CDKN1A and 14-3-3sigma, knocking out CDKN1A reduced the delay the most for cells irradiated in G(1) (from approximately 15 h to approximately 3- 5 h), while knocking out 14-3-3sigma reduced the delay the most for cells irradiated in late S and G(2) (from approximately 18 h to approximately 3-4 h). However, 27% of wild-type cells and 17% of 14-3-3sigma(-/-) cells were arrested at 96 h in generation 0 compared with less than 1% for CDKN1A(-/-) and double-knockout cells. Thus expression of CDKN1A is necessary for the prolonged delay or arrest in generation 0. Furthermore, CDKN1A plays a crucial role in generation 1, greatly inhibiting progression into subsequent generations of both diploid cells and polyploid cells produced by mitotic catastrophe. Thus, in CDKN1A-deficient cell lines, a series of mitotic catastrophe events occurred to produce highly polyploid progeny during generations 3 and 4. Most importantly, the polyploid progeny produced by mitotic catastrophe events did not die sooner than the progeny of dividing cells. Death was identified as loss of cell movement, i.e. metabolic activity. Thus mitotic catastrophe itself is not a direct mode of death. Instead, apoptosis during interphase of both uninucleated and polyploid cells was the primary mode of death observed in the four cell types. Knocking out either CDKN1A or 14-3-3sigma increased the amount of cell death at 96 h, from 52% to approximately 70%, with an even greater increase to 90% when both genes were knocked out. Thus, in addition to effects of CDKN1A and 14-3-3sigma expression on transient cell cycle delay, CDKN1A has both an anti-proliferative and anti-apoptosis function, while 14-3-3sigma has only an anti-apoptosis function. Finally, the large alterations in the amounts of cell death did not correlate overall with the small alterations in clonogenic survival (dose-modifying ratios of 1.05-1.13); however, knocking out CDKN1A resulted in a decrease in arrested cells and an increase in survival, while knocking out 14-3-3sigma resulted in an increase in apoptosis and a decrease in survival.

Design, testing, and clinical studies of a handheld polarized light camera

Polarized light imaging has been used to detect the borders of skin cancer and facilitate assessment of cancer boundaries. A design for an inexpensive handheld polarized camera is presented and clinical images acquired with this prototype are shown. The camera is built with two universal serial bus (USB) color video cameras, a polarizing beamsplitter cube, and a 4x objective lens. Illumination is provided by three white LEDs and a sheet polarizer. Horizontal and vertical linearly polarized reflected images are processed at 7 frames/s and a resulting polarized image is displayed on screen. We compare the performances of cheap USB camera and a 16-bit electronically cooled camera. Dark noise and image repeatability are compared. In both cases, the 16-bit camera outperforms the USB cameras. Despite these limitations, the results obtained with this USB prototype are very satisfactory. Examples of polarized images of lesions taken prior to surgery are presented.

Interneurone bursts are spontaneously associated with muscle contractions only during early phases of mouse spinal network development: a study in organotypic cultures

For a short time during development immature circuits in the spinal cord and other parts of the central nervous system spontaneously generate synchronous patterns of rhythmic activity. In the case of the spinal cord, it is still unclear how strongly synchronized bursts generated by interneurones are associated with motoneurone firing and whether the progressive decline in spontaneous bursting during circuit maturation proceeds in parallel for motoneurone and interneurone networks. We used organotypic cocultures of spinal cord and skeletal muscle in order to investigate the ontogenic evolution of endogenous spinal network activity associated with the generation of coordinate muscle fibre contractions. A combination of multiunit electrophysiological recordings, videomicroscopy and optical flow computation allowed us to measure the correlation between interneurone firing and motoneurone outputs after 1, 2 and 3 weeks of in vitro development. We found that, in spinal organotypic slices, there is a developmental switch of spontaneous activity from stable bursting to random patterns after the first week in culture. Conversely, bursting recorded in the presence of strychnine and bicuculline became increasingly regular with time in vitro. The time course of spontaneous activity maturation in organotypic slices is similar to that previously reported for the spinal cord developing in utero. We also demonstrated that spontaneous bursts of interneurone action potentials strongly correlate with muscular contractions only during the first week in vitro and that this is due to the activation of motoneurones via AMPA-type glutamate receptors. These results indicate the occurrence in vitro of motor network development regulating bursting inputs from interneurones to motoneurones.

Development of a digital video-microscopy technique to study lactose crystallisation kinetics in situ

Polarised light microscopy was employed non-invasively to monitor lactose crystallisation from non-seeded supersaturated solutions in real time. Images were continuously recorded, processed and characterised by image analysis, and the results were compared with those obtained by refractometry. Three crystallisation temperatures (10, 20 and 30 degrees C) and three different levels of initial relative supersaturation (C/C(s)=1.95; 2.34; 3.15) were investigated. Induction times using the imaging technique proved to be substantially lower than those determined using refractive index. Lactose crystals were isolated digitally to determine geometrical parameters of interest, such as perimeter, diameter, area, roundness and Feret mean, and to derive crystal growth rates. Mean growth rates obtained for single crystals were fitted to a combined mass transfer model (R(2)=0.9766). The model allowed the effects of temperature and supersaturation on crystallisation rate to be clearly identified. It also suggested that, in this set of experiments, surface integration seemed to be the rate controlling step. It is believed that a similar experimental set-up could be implemented in a real food system to characterise a particular process where crystallisation control is of interest and where traditional techniques are difficult to implement.

Micromechanical Analysis of the Binding of DNA-Bending Proteins HMGB1, NHP6A, and HU Reveals Their Ability To Form Highly Stable DNA−Protein Complexes†

The mechanical response generated by binding of the nonspecific DNA-bending proteins HMGB1, NHP6A, and HU to single tethered 48.5 kb lambda-DNA molecules is investigated using DNA micromanipulation. As protein concentration is increased, the force needed to extend the DNA molecule increases, due to its compaction by protein-generated bending. Most significantly, we find that for each of HMGB1, NHP6A, and HU there is a well-defined protein concentration, not far above the binding threshold, above which the proteins do not spontaneously dissociate. In this regime, the amount of protein bound to the DNA, as assayed by the degree to which the DNA is compacted, is unperturbed either by replacing the surrounding protein solution with protein-free buffer or by straightening of the molecule by applied force. Thus, the stability of the protein-DNA complexes formed is dependent on the protein concentration during the binding. HU is distinguished by a switch to a DNA-stiffening function at the protein concentration where the formation of highly stable complexes occurs. Finally, introduction of competitor DNA fragments into the surrounding solution disassembles the stable DNA complexes with HMGB1, NHP6A, and HU within seconds. Since spontaneous dissociation of protein does not occur on a time scale of hours, we conclude that this rapid protein exchange in the presence of competitor DNA must occur only via "direct" DNA-DNA contact. We therefore observe that protein transport along DNA by direct transfers occurs even for proteins such as NHP6A and HU that have only one DNA-binding domain.

Fast fluorescence lifetime imaging of calcium in living cells

A fast fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) system is developed that can acquire images at a rate of hundreds of frames per second. The FLIM system is based on a wide-field microscope equipped with a time-gated intensified CCD detector and a pulsed laser. The time-gated detector acquires the signals from two time gates simultaneously and is therefore insensitive to movements of the specimen and photo-bleaching. The system is well suited for quantitative biological FLIM experiments and its performance is evaluated in calcium imaging experiments on beating neonatal rat myocytes. Several calcium sensitive dyes are characterized and tested for their suitability for fast FLIM experiments: Oregon Green Bapta-1 (OGB1), Oregon Green Bapta-2 (OGB2), and Oregon Green Bapta-5N (OGB5N). Overall the sensitivity range of these dyes is shifted to low calcium concentrations when used as lifetime dyes. OGB1 and OGB2 behave very similarly and can be used for FLIM-based calcium imaging in the range 1 to approximately 500 nM and OGB5N can be used up to 3 microM. The fast FLIM experiments on the myocytes could be carried out at a 100-Hz frame rate. During the beating of the myocytes a lifetime change of about 20% is observed. From the lifetime images a rest calcium level of about 65 nM is found.

Intravital microscopy: visualizing immunity in context

Recent advances in photonics, particularly multi-photon microscopy (MPM) and new molecular and genetic tools are empowering immunologists to answer longstanding unresolved questions in living animals. Using intravital microscopy (IVM) investigators are dissecting the cellular and molecular underpinnings controlling immune cell motility and interactions in tissues. Recent IVM work showed that T cell responses to antigen in lymph nodes are different from those observed in vitro and appear dictated by factors uniquely relevant to intact organs. Other IVM models, particularly in the bone marrow, reveal how different anatomic contexts regulate leukocyte development, immunity, and inflammation. This article will discuss the current state of the field and outline how IVM can generate new discoveries and serve as a "reality check" for areas of research that were formerly the exclusive domain of in vitro experimentation.

Myosin II activity is required for severing-induced axon retraction in vitro

Understanding the mechanistic basis of the response of neurons to injury is directly relevant to the development of effective therapeutic approaches aimed at the amelioration of nervous system damage. Axons retract in response to severing. We investigated the mechanism of axon retraction in response to severing in vitro, testing the hypothesis that actomyosin contractility drives severing-induced axon retraction. Axon retraction commenced within 5 min following severing and correlated with actin filament accumulation at the site of severing. Depolymerization of actin filaments prevented retraction, demonstrating that actin filaments are required for severing-induced axon retraction. Direct inhibition of myosin II, using blebbistatin, minimized axon retraction in response to severing. Blocking RhoA-kinase (ROCK), a modulator of myosin II activity, inhibited axon retraction. Similarly, inhibiting myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) with a cell-permeable pseudo-substrate peptide also inhibited axon retraction. These data demonstrate that myosin II activity is required for severing-induced axon retraction in vitro, and suggest myosin II as a target for therapeutic interventions aimed at minimizing retraction following severing in vivo.

Simultaneous, coincident optical trapping and single-molecule fluorescence

We constructed a microscope-based instrument capable of simultaneous, spatially coincident optical trapping and single-molecule fluorescence. The capabilities of this apparatus were demonstrated by studying the force-induced strand separation of a dye-labeled, 15-base-pair region of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), with force applied either parallel ('unzipping' mode) or perpendicular ('shearing' mode) to the long axis of the region. Mechanical transitions corresponding to DNA hybrid rupture occurred simultaneously with discontinuous changes in the fluorescence emission. The rupture force was strongly dependent on the direction of applied force, indicating the existence of distinct unbinding pathways for the two force-loading modes. From the rupture force histograms, we determined the distance to the thermodynamic transition state and the thermal off rates in the absence of load for both processes.

Double tether extraction from human neutrophils and its comparison with CD4+ T-lymphocytes

The initial arrest and subsequent rolling of a leukocyte on the vascular endothelium is believed to be facilitated by the extraction of tethers, which are narrow membranous tubes drawn from the leukocyte. Although single tether extraction from neutrophils has been studied thoroughly, the relationship between the tether force (F) and tether-growth velocity (U(t)) is still unknown for double tethers drawn from neutrophils. In this study, we have determined this relationship with the micropipette-aspiration technique. As a comparison, tether extraction from CD4+ T-lymphocytes was also studied. The threshold force and effective viscosity for single tether extraction from passive CD4+ T-lymphocytes were found to be 46 pN and 1.55 pN x s/microm, respectively. These values were modulated by stimulation with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), but not interleukin-8 (IL-8). More importantly, for both types of leukocyte, the threshold force and effective viscosity for double tether extraction are about twice as large as those corresponding to single tether extraction. Neither IL-8 nor PMA stimulation had any effect on this correlation. These results indicate that double tethers are highly localized on cellular surfaces and independent of each other during the rolling process.

Automatic Tracking, Feature Extraction and Classification of C. elegans Phenotypes

This paper presents a method for automatic tracking of the head, tail, and entire body movement of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) using computer vision and digital image analysis techniques. The characteristics of the worm's movement, posture and texture information were extracted from a 5-min image sequence. A Random Forests classifier was then used to identify the worm type, and the features that best describe the data. A total of 1597 individual worm video sequences, representing wild type and 15 different mutant types, were analyzed. The average correct classification ratio, measured by out-of-bag (OOB) error rate, was 90.9%. The features that have most discrimination ability were also studied. The algorithm developed will be an essential part of a completely automated C. elegans tracking and identification system.

Cortical spreading depression, meningeal inflammation and trigeminal nociception

This study investigated whether perivascular inflammation is necessary in the process of cortical spreading depression (CSD)-induced trigeminovascular nociception. CSD was induced by application of potassium chloride on rat parietal surface. Cortical microcirculation was studied using intravital fluorescent videomicroscopy, laser Doppler flowmetry and electron microscopy. Trigeminal nociception was determined using Fos immunoreactivity as the indicator. We found that KCl application caused cyclic cortical hyperaemia and pial microvascular dilation. Neither increased leukocyte-endothelial adhesion nor extravasation of macromolecule was demonstrated. Ultrastructural study revealed increased endothelial pinocytosis but tight junction remained intact. Despite no intense perivascular inflammation, we observed significantly increased Fos-immunoreactivity in trigeminal nucleus caudalis. These results suggest that perivascular inflammation is not necessary in the process of CSD-evoked trigeminovascular nociception.

Contribution of microscopy to a better knowledge of the biology of Giardia lamblia

Giardia lamblia is a flagellated protozoan of great medical and biological importance. It is the causative agent of giardiasis, one of the most prevalent diarrheal disease both in developed and third-world countries. Morphological studies have shown that G. lamblia does not present structures such as peroxisomes, mitochondria, and a well-elaborated Golgi complex. In this review, special emphasis is given to the contribution made by various microscopic techniques to a better knowledge of the biology of the protozoan. The application of video microscopy, immunofluorescence confocal laser scanning microscopy, and several techniques associated with transmission electron microscopy (thin section, enzyme cytochemistry, freeze-fracture, deep-etching, fracture-flip) to the study of the cell surface, peripheral vesicles, endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi complex system, and of the encystation vesicles found in trophozoites and during the process of trophozoite-cyst transformation are discussed.

Determination of diffusion coefficient in gel and in aqueous solutions using scanning electrochemical microscopy

Diffusion coefficient of different species in different media is an important property needed in scientific research and practice. A method taking advantage on the special capability of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) is described for the easy and accurate measurement of diffusion coefficient. The method is based on detecting the concentration-time transients with appropriate electrochemical microsensor positioned at the close vicinity of a miniature dose-source device. At a given time (ti), a small dose of the investigated species is introduced. The Deltatmax=(tcmax-ti) value and the distance (d=x+Deltaxn) between the source and the detector microelectrode are used for the calculation of D. While the original set distance (x) cannot be accurately measured in the micrometer scale, the tip travel distance (Deltaxn) of the microscope is well defined. Collecting a few Deltatmax-(x+Deltaxn) data pairs, a reliable value of the diffusion coefficient can be obtained. The procedure is simple, and no exact knowledge of the introduced dose is needed. Two ways of sample dose delivery were used: on the one hand, coulometric generation with current-controlled electric pulse using micro-disc electrode, and on the other one, pressure ejection of a nano-droplet from a glass micropipette. Diffusion coefficient of I2, H2O2, [Ru(NH3)6]Cl3 and K3[Fe(CN)6] were measured in solution and in agarose gel phases of different composition. The effect of polyelectrolyte ion exchangers on the diffusion of the investigated species was checked.

Aggregate formation of erythrocytes in postcapillary venules

The purpose of the present study was to obtain information on erythrocyte aggregate formation in vivo. The movements of erythrocytes in postcapillary venules of the rat spinotrapezius muscle at various flow rates were recorded with a high-speed video camera before and after infusion of dextran 500. To distinguish aggregates, the following criteria were used: 1) a fixed distance (4 microm) between the center points of two adjacent cells, 2) lack of visible separation between the adjacent cells, and 3) movement of the adjacent cells in the same direction. Without dextran 500 infusion, 11 and 5% of erythrocytes formed aggregates in low (33.2 +/- 28.3 s) and high pseudoshear (144.2 +/- 58.3 s) conditions, respectively, based on the above criteria. After dextran 500 infusion, 53% of erythrocytes satisfied the criteria in the low pseudoshear condition (26.5 +/- 17.0 s) and 13% of erythrocytes met the criteria in the high pseudoshear condition (240.0 +/- 85.9 s), indicating erythrocyte aggregation is strongly associated with shear rate. Approximately 90% of aggregate formation occurred in a short time period (0.15-0.30 s after entering the venule) in a region 15 to 30 microm from the entrance. The time delay may reflect rheological entrance conditions in the venule.

A tribute to Shinya Inoue and innovation in light microscopy

The 2003 International Prize for Biology was awarded to Shinya Inoue for his pioneering work in visualizing dynamic processes within living cells using the light microscope. He and his scientific descendants are now pushing light microscopy even further by developing new techniques such as imaging single molecules, visualizing processes in living animals, and correlating results from light and electron microscopy.

Videomicroscopy of venular malformations (port-wine stain type): prediction of response to pulsed dye laser

Videomicroscopy has been found to be useful in determining the depth of ectasia of vascular malformations. Different patterns that hypothetically could predict the response of a vascular malformation to pulsed dye laser have been described. Our purpose was to determine if the dermoscopy pattern was able to predict the response to pulsed dye laser therapy and if it was independent of other known clinical variables. Thirty-three consecutive children presenting for evaluation or treatment of vascular malformations underwent videomicroscopy previous to pulsed dye laser therapy. Sixty-nine representative areas were evaluated before and after laser therapy. Other clinical factors, including location of the malformation, the patient's age and sex, and previous therapy, were also included in the analysis. We found that the dermoscopy pattern was differently distributed depending on the anatomic area. A superficial pattern was not present in the centrofacial area. An undefined pattern was most often present when a previously treated area was imaged. A superficial pattern independently predicted a good response to laser. The location of the lesion was another independent factor influencing the outcome. A new pattern consisting of a pale circular area surrounding a central brownish dot is described as negatively influencing the response to laser therapy. We concluded that videomicroscopy is a good tool for assessing which vascular malformations can be adequately treated with laser therapy, although other anatomic factors can influence the response. Videomicroscopy is particularly helpful in deciding when to end the treatment because it objectively shows when no further response can be expected, and is helpful for demonstrating this to patients and their parents.

An imaging system for standardized quantitative analysis of C. elegans behavior

Background

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is widely used for the genetic analysis of neuronal cell biology, development, and behavior. Because traditional methods for evaluating behavioral phenotypes are qualitative and imprecise, there is a need for tools that allow quantitation and standardization of C. elegans behavioral assays.

Results

Here we describe a tracking and imaging system for the automated analysis of C. elegans morphology and behavior. Using this system, it is possible to record the behavior of individual nematodes over long time periods and quantify 144 specific phenotypic parameters.

Conclusions

These tools for phenotypic analysis will provide reliable, comprehensive scoring of a wide range of behavioral abnormalities, and will make it possible to standardize assays such that behavioral data from different labs can readily be compared. In addition, this system will facilitate high-throughput collection of phenotypic data that can ultimately be used to generate a comprehensive database of C. elegans phenotypic information.

Availability

The hardware configuration and software for the system are available from wschafer@ucsd.edu.

Pox, dyes, and videotape: making movies of GFP-labeled vaccinia virus

The large size of poxvirus virions (approx 250 x 350 nm) makes them ideal candidates for microscopic studies. Recombinant vaccinia viruses that express a viral envelope-specific, green fluorescent protein (GFP) chimera produce enveloped virions that fluoresce green. This fluorescent labeling allows the live, real-time study of viral egress using a variety of microscopic techniques. The methods presented here describe how to image the movement of intracellular enveloped virions that are labeled with green fluorescent protein using time-lapse laser scanning confocal microscopy. Details are also provided for analyzing the images obtained and converting them into QuickTime movies suitable for presentation.

Real time in situ microscopy for animal cell-concentration monitoring during high density culture in bioreactor

An in situ microscope (ISM) device is utilised in this study to monitor hybridoma cells concentration in a stirred bioreactor. It generates images by using pulsed illumination of the liquid broth synchronised with the camera frame generation to avoid blur from the cell's motion. An appropriate image processing isolates the sharp objects from the blurred ones that are far from the focal plane. As image processing involves several parameters, this paper focuses on the robustness of the results of the cells counting. This stage determines the applicability of the measuring device and has seldom been tackled in the presentations of ISM devices. Calibration is secondly performed for assessing the cell-concentration from the cell automated numeration provided by the ISM. Flow cytometry and hemacytometer chamber were used as reference analytical methods. These measures and the output of the image processing allow estimating a single calibration parameter: the reference volume per image equal to 1.08 x 10(-6) mL. In these conditions, the correlation coefficient between both reference and ISM data sets becomes equal to 0.99. A saturation of this system during an ultrasonic wave perfusion phase that deeply changes the culture conditions is observed and discussed. Principal component analysis (PCA) is used to undergo the robustness study and the ISM calibration step.

Characterization of embryonic cardiac pacemaker and atrioventricular conduction physiology in Xenopus laevis using noninvasive imaging

Congenital heart defects often include altered conduction as well as morphological changes. Model organisms, like the frog Xenopus laevis, offer practical advantages for the study of congenital heart disease. X. laevis embryos are easily obtained free living, and the developing heart is readily visualized. Functional and morphological evidence for a conduction system is available for adult frog hearts, but information on the normal properties of embryonic heart contraction is lacking, especially in intact animals. With the use of fine glass microelectrodes, we were able to obtain cardiac recordings and make standard electrophysiological measurements in 1-wk-old embryos (stage 46). In addition, a system using digital analysis of video images was adapted for measurement of the standard cardiac intervals and compared with invasive measurements. Video images were obtained of the heart in live, pharmacologically paralyzed, stage 46 X. laevis embryos. Normal values for the timing of the cardiac cycle were established. Intervals determined by video analysis (n = 53), including the atrial and ventricular cycle lengths (473 +/- 10 ms and 464 +/- 19 ms, respectively) and the atrioventricular interval (169 +/- 5 ms) were not statistically different from those determined by intrathoracic cardiac recordings. We also present the data obtained from embryos treated with standard medications that affect the human conduction system. We conclude that the physiology of embryonic X. laevis cardiac conduction can be noninvasively studied by using digital video imaging. Additionally, we show the response of X. laevis embryonic hearts to chronotropic agents is similar but not identical to the response of the human heart.

Vesicle fluctuation analysis of the effects of sterols on membrane bending rigidity

Sterols are regulators of both biological function and structure. The role of cholesterol in promoting the structural and mechanical stability of membranes is widely recognized. Knowledge of how the related sterols, lanosterol and ergosterol, affect membrane mechanical properties is sparse. This paper presents a comprehensive comparison of the effects of cholesterol, lanosterol, and ergosterol upon the bending elastic properties of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl- sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine giant unilamellar vesicles. Measurements are made using vesicle fluctuation analysis, a nonintrusive technique that we have recently improved for determining membrane bending rigidity. Giving a detailed account of the vesicle fluctuation analysis technique, we describe how the gravitational stabilization of the vesicles enhances image contrast, vesicle yield, and the quality of data. Implications of gravity on vesicle behaviour are also discussed. These recent modifications render vesicle fluctuation analysis an efficient and accurate method for determining how cholesterol, lanosterol, and ergosterol increase membrane bending rigidity.

Comparison of contrast, sensitivity and efficiency of signal amplified and nonamplified immunohistochemical reactions suitable for videomicroscopy-based quantification and neuroimaging

In recent years, many different technical modifications of immunohistochemical methods have been developed. The selection of a suitable technique for quantitative purposes such as mapping studies can be quite difficult. Various features of a certain method must be considered such as the sensitivity, costs, duration and practicability with respect to serial sectioned specimens. Background and foreground difference or contrast and the influence of artifacts are major problems of quantitative immunohistochemistry. It is not known which of the different modifications of immunohistochemical signal amplifications and non-amplifications gives optimal results in respect to image analytical-based quantification. However, for image analysis, it is important to analyze sections which offer a sufficient contrast between foreground and background. The sensitivity of a system is crucial when quantitative immunohistochemistry should be applied to scarce material with longer postmortem and storage times which occur often by processing human brains. In addition, the enzyme-substrate reactions have an obvious influence on this criterion; therefore, different substrates were also tested. The contrast may be as well effected by the quality and specificity of the primary antibody, the type of tissue and naturally by preparative (fixation, postmortem delay, storage) and individual factors (age, circadian effects, diseases, sex). Because all of these factors may yield to different results by combining them with different neuronal structures, we used three different antigen expressions for a specific analysis: fibrillary, granulary and perikaryal antigen distributions in brains from Wistar rats. Principally, the sensitivity of the modifications of immunohistochemical amplifications is revealed more strongly than without enhancement steps; however, the contrast between foreground and background structures does not necessary increase by applying a certain amplification technique. The lowest contrast (15%) was detected after applying the labelled streptavidin-biotin technique. All other methods offer comparable contrasts in between 30% and 40%. The catalyzed signal amplification reaction has been found to give optimal results (40% contrast) for image analysis. However, from the technical point of view and variability of protein expression, storage and postmortem delay, it was necessary to adapt the commercial CSA Kit from Dako (K1500). The modified technique, called C2 method, offers better results with respect to sensitivity, total costs, duration and contrast (60%) and variability of contrast.

Dynamic tension spectroscopy and strength of biomembranes

Rupturing fluid membrane vesicles with a steady ramp of micropipette suction produces a distribution of breakage tensions governed by the kinetic process of membrane failure. When plotted as a function of log(tension loading rate), the locations of distribution peaks define a dynamic tension spectrum with distinct regimes that reflect passage of prominent energy barriers along the kinetic pathway. Using tests on five types of giant phosphatidylcholine lipid vesicles over loading rates(tension/time) from 0.01-100 mN/m/s, we show that the kinetic process of membrane breakage can be modeled by a causal sequence of two thermally-activated transitions. At fast loading rates, a steep linear regime appears in each spectrum which implies that membrane failure starts with nucleation of a rare precursor defect. The slope and projected intercept of this regime are set by defect size and frequency of spontaneous formation, respectively. But at slow loading rates, each spectrum crosses over to a shallow-curved regime where rupture tension changes weakly with rate. This regime is predicted by the classical cavitation theory for opening an unstable hole in a two-dimensional film within the lifetime of the defect state. Under slow loading, membrane edge energy and the frequency scale for thermal fluctuations in hole size are the principal factors that govern the level of tension at failure. To critically test the model and obtain the parameters governing the rates of transition under stress, distributions of rupture tension were computed and matched to the measured histograms through solution of the kinetic master (Markov) equations for defect formation and annihilation or evolution to an unstable hole under a ramp of tension. As key predictors of membrane strength, the results for spontaneous frequencies of defect formation and hole edge energies were found to correlate with membrane thicknesses and elastic bending moduli, respectively.