Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome

The human genome holds an extraordinary trove of information about human development, physiology, medicine and evolution. Here we report the results of an international collaboration to produce and make freely available a draft sequence of the human genome. We also present an initial analysis of the data, describing some of the insights that can be gleaned from the sequence.

Uncharged thioflavin-T derivatives bind to amyloid-beta protein with high affinity and readily enter the brain

In vivo assessment of the beta-sheet proteins deposited in amyloid plaques (A beta peptide) or neurofibrillary tangles (tau protein) presents a target for the development of biological markers for Alzheimer's disease (AD). In an effort to develop in vivo beta-sheet imaging probes, derivatives of thioflavin-T (ThT) were synthesized and evaluated. These compounds lack the positively charged quaternary heterocyclic nitrogen of ThT and are therefore uncharged at physiological pH. They are 600-fold more lipophilic than ThT. These ThT derivatives bind to A beta(1-40) fibrils with higher affinity (Ki = 20.2 nM) than ThT (Ki = 890 nM). The uncharged ThT derivatives stained both plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in post-mortem AD brain, showing some preference for plaque staining. A carbon-11 labeled compound, [N-methyl-11C]6-Me-BTA-1, was prepared, and its brain entry and clearance were studied in Swiss-Webster mice. This compound entered the brain at levels comparable to commonly used neuroreceptor imaging agents (0.223 %ID-kg/g or 7.61 %ID/g at 2 min post-injection) and showed good clearance of free and non-specifically bound radioactivity in normal rodent brain tissue (brain clearance t(1,2) = 20 min). The combination of relatively high affinity for amyloid, specificity for staining plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in post-mortem AD brain, and good brain entry and clearance makes [N-methyl-11C]6-Me-BTA-1 a promising candidate as an in vivo positron emission tomography (PET) beta-sheet imaging agent.

Genetic reconstitution of systemic lupus erythematosus immunopathology with polycongenic murine strains

We previously produced three congenic strains carrying lupus susceptibility genes (Sle1-Sle3) from the lupus-prone NZM2410 mouse on the C57BL/6 background and characterized their component phenotypes. Sle1 mediates the loss of tolerance to nuclear antigens; Sle2 lowers the activation threshold of B cells; and Sle3 mediates a dysregulation of CD4(+) T cells. We have now created a collection of bi- and tricongenic strains with these intervals and assessed the autoimmune phenotypes they elicit in various combinations. Our results indicate that Sle1 is key for the development of fatal lupus. The combination of Sle1 with Sle2, Sle3, or the BXSB-derived autoimmune accelerating gene yaa results in the development of systemic autoimmunity with variably penetrant severe glomerulonephritis culminating in kidney failure. In contrast, two locus combinations of Sle2, Sle3, and yaa failed to mediate fatal disease. These results indicate that the loss of tolerance to chromatin mediated by Sle1 is essential for disease pathogenesis and identify the pathway occupied by Sle1 as a strategic target for therapeutic intervention in systemic lupus erythematosus. The coexpression of Sle1, Sle2, and Sle3 as a B6-triple congenic results in severe systemic autoimmunity and fully penetrant, fatal glomerulonephritis. These results demonstrate the fulfillment of the genetic equivalent of Koch's postulate, where susceptibility loci in a lupus-prone strain have been identified by a genome scan, isolated and functionally characterized by congenic dissection, and finally shown to mediate full disease expression when recombined in a normal genome.

Effects of emulsifiers on the controlled release of paclitaxel (Taxol) from nanospheres of biodegradable polymers

Paclitaxel (Taxol) is an antineoplastic drug effective for various cancers especially ovarian and breast cancer. Due to its high hydrophobicity, however, an adjuvant such as Cremophor EL has to be used in its clinical administration, which causes serious side-effects. Nanospheres of biodegradable polymers could be an ideal solution. This study investigates the effects of various emulsifiers on the physical/chemical properties and release kinetics of paclitaxel loaded nanospheres fabricated by the solvent extraction/evaporation technique. It is shown that phospholipids could be a novel type of emulsifiers. The nanospheres manufactured with various emulsifiers were characterized by laser light scattering for their size and size distribution; scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) for their surface morphology; zeta potential analyser for their surface charge; and, most importantly, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) for their surface chemistry. The encapsulation efficiency and in vitro release profile were measured by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). It is found that dipalmitoyl-phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) can provide more complete coating on the surface of the products which thus results in a higher emulsifying efficiency compared with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Our result shows that the chain length and unsaturation of the lipids have a significant influence on the emulsifying efficiency. Phospholipids with short and saturated chains have excellent emulsifying effects.

A RUNX2/PEBP2alpha A/CBFA1 mutation displaying impaired transactivation and Smad interaction in cleidocranial dysplasia

Cleidocranial dysplasia (CCD), an autosomal-dominant human bone disease, is thought to be caused by heterozygous mutations in runt-related gene 2 (RUNX2)/polyomavirus enhancer binding protein 2alphaA (PEBP2alphaA)/core-binding factor A1 (CBFA1). To understand the mechanism underlying the pathogenesis of CCD, we studied a novel mutant of RUNX2, CCDalphaA376, originally identified in a CCD patient. The nonsense mutation, which resulted in a truncated RUNX2 protein, severely impaired RUNX2 transactivation activity. We show that signal transducers of transforming growth factor beta superfamily receptors, Smads, interact with RUNX2 in vivo and in vitro and enhance the transactivation ability of this factor. The truncated RUNX2 protein failed to interact with and respond to Smads and was unable to induce the osteoblast-like phenotype in C2C12 myoblasts on stimulation by bone morphogenetic protein. Therefore, the pathogenesis of CCD may be related to the impaired Smad signaling of transforming growth factor beta/bone morphogenetic protein pathways that target the activity of RUNX2 during bone formation.

Affinity maturation without germinal centres in lymphotoxin-alpha-deficient mice

Affinity maturation by somatic hypermutation is thought to occur within germinal centres. Mice deficient in lymphotoxin-alpha (LT alpha-/- mice) have no lymph nodes or Peyer's patches, and fail to form germinal centres in the spleen. We tested whether germinal centres are essential for maturation of antibody responses to T-cell-dependent antigens. LT alpha-/- mice immunized with low doses of (4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetyl-ovalbumin (NP-OVA) showed dramatically impaired production of high-affinity anti-NP IgG1. However, LT alpha-/- mice immunized with high doses of NP-OVA, even though they failed to produce germinal centres, manifested a high-affinity anti-NP IgG1 response similar to wild-type mice. Furthermore, when LT alpha-/- mice were multiply immunized with high doses of NP-OVA, the predominantly expressed anti-NP VH gene segment VH186.2 showed somatic mutations typical of affinity maturation. Thus, B-cell memory and affinity maturation are not absolutely dependent on the presence of germinal centres.

Hertz-Level Measurement of the Optical Clock Frequency in a Single 88Sr+ Ion

The frequency of the 5s 2S(1/2)-4d 2D(5/2) electric quadrupole clock transition in a single, trapped, laser-cooled 88Sr+ ion has been measured by using an optical frequency comb referenced to a cesium fountain primary frequency standard. The frequency of the transition is measured as 444,779,044,095,484.6 (1.5) hertz, with a fractional uncertainty within a factor of 3 of that of the cesium standard. Improvements required to obtain a cesium-limited frequency measurement are described and are expected to lead to a 88Sr+ optical clock with stability and reproducibility exceeding that of the primary cesium standard.

B lymphocytes induce the formation of follicular dendritic cell clusters in a lymphotoxin alpha-dependent fashion

Lymphotoxin (LT)alpha is expressed by activated T cells, especially CD4(+) T helper type 1 cells, and by activated B and natural killer cells, but the functions of this molecule in vivo are incompletely defined. We have previously shown that follicular dendritic cell (FDC) clusters and germinal centers (GCs) are absent from the peripheral lymphoid tissues of LTalpha-deficient (LTalpha-/-) mice. LTalpha-/- mice produce high levels of antigen-specific immunoglobulin (Ig)M, but very low levels of IgG after immunization with sheep red blood cells. We show here that LTalpha-expressing B cells are essential for the recovery of primary, secondary, and memory humoral immune responses in LTalpha-/- mice. It is not necessary for T cells to express LTalpha to support these immune functions. Importantly, LTalpha-expressing B cells alone are essential and sufficient for the formation of FDC clusters. Once these clusters are formed by LTalpha-expressing B cells, then LTalpha-deficient T cells can interact with B cells to generate GCs and productive class-switched antibody responses. Thus, B cells themselves provide an essential signal that induces and maintains the lymphoid microenvironment essential for GC formation and class-switched Ig responses.

Clinical and biological implications of MYC activation: a common difference between MGUS and newly diagnosed multiple myeloma

Events mediating transformation from the pre-malignant monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) to multiple myeloma (MM) are unknown. We analyzed gene expression data sets generated on the Affymetrix U133 platform from 22 MGUS and 101 MM patients using gene-set enrichment analysis. Genes overexpressed in MM were enriched for cell cycle, proliferation and MYC activation gene sets. Upon dissecting the relationship between MYC and cell-cycle gene sets, we identified and validated an MYC activation signature dissociated from proliferation. Applying this signature, MYC is activated in 67% of myeloma, but not in MGUS. This was further confirmed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) using membrane CD138 and nuclear MYC double staining. We also showed that almost all tumors with RAS mutations expressed the MYC activation signature, and multiple mechanisms may be involved in activating MYC. MYC activation, whether assessed by gene-expression signature or IHC, is associated with hyperdiploid MM and shorter survival even in tumors that are not proliferative. Bortezomib treatment is able to overcome the survival disadvantage in patients with MYC activation.

Calcium activates serum response factor-dependent transcription by a Ras- and Elk-1-independent mechanism that involves a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase

Enhanced levels of cytoplasmic Ca2+ due to membrane depolarization with elevated levels of KCl or exposure to the Ca2+ ionophore ionomycin stimulate serum response element (SRE)-dependent transcription in the pheochromocytoma cell line PC12. By using altered binding specificity mutants of transcription factors that bind to the SRE, it was demonstrated that in contrast to treatment with purified growth factors, such as nerve growth factor, the serum response factor (SRF), but not Elk-1, mediates Ca(2+)-regulated SRE-dependent transcription. Enhanced levels of cytoplasmic Ca2+ were found to trigger SRE-dependent transcription via a Ras-independent signaling pathway that appears to involve a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase (CaMK). Overexpression of a constitutively active form of CaMKIV stimulated SRF-dependent transcription. Taken together, these findings indicate that SRF is a versatile transcription factor that, when bound to the SRE, can function by distinct mechanisms and can mediate transcriptional responses to both CaMK- and Ras-dependent signaling pathways.

Nucleus centralis of the amygdala and the globus pallidus ventralis: electrophysiological evidence for an involvement in pain processes

1. Neurons (n = 177) were recorded with extracellular micropipettes in and around the nucleus centralis of the amygdala (Ce), in anesthetized rats. The spontaneous activity of these neurons was variable (0.25 less than 3 less than 35 Hz, n = 175; 10th percentile less than median less than 90th percentile). A majority (80%) of these neurons were excited or inhibited exclusively or preferentially by noxious stimuli. These units were separated into two groups: 1) a group of neurons excited by noxious stimuli (46% of the whole population) and 2) a group of neurons inhibited by noxious stimuli (34% of the whole population). 2. The receptive fields of both groups of neurons were very large: in about one-half the cases the neurons responded similarly from all parts of the body, and in the other cases the responses were greater when the stimuli were applied to a restricted part of the body. 3. Seventy-seven percent of the excited neurons had responses of relatively high magnitudes. In this group, most cells (75%) were exclusively driven by noxious stimuli; the others (25%) were preferentially activated by noxious stimuli. These neurons responded to mechanical (pinch or squeeze) and/or thermal (water bath or water jet greater than 44 degrees C) noxious stimuli with a marked and sustained activation. 4. Sixty percent of the inhibited neurons had a marked decrease of activity in response to noxious stimuli. In this group, most of them (81%) were exclusively inhibited by noxious stimuli, whereas the remainder (19%) were preferentially inhibited by noxious stimuli. These neurons responded to mechanical (pinch or squeeze) and/or thermal (water bath or waterjet greater than 44 degrees C) noxious stimuli with a suppression or a marked and sustained decrease in activity. 5. All of the nociceptive neurons responded to intense transcutaneous electrical stimulation with one or several components of activation or inhibition. According to their latencies, three types of components were distinguished: early, intermediate, and late components. We estimate that the early and the intermediate components would be triggered by the activity of peripheral fibers in the 6- to 20-m/s range and therefore could be in the A delta fibers range, whereas the late component would be triggered by fibers in the 0.5- to 1-m/s range and therefore could be in the C fibers range. 6. The neurons excited or inhibited by noxious stimuli were not homogeneously distributed in and around the Ce.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Transformation of organic matter during co-composting of pig manure with sawdust

Co-composting of pig manure with sawdust was studied in order to characterize the organic transformation during the process, using both chemical and spectroscopic methods. Humic acids (HA) and fulvic acids (FA) were fractionated from immature and mature pig manure compost, and characterized. After 63 days of composting, the ratio of total organic carbon and soluble organic carbon decreased to a satisfactory low level and the solid and soluble C/N ratios decreased rapidly for the first 35 days before attaining a constant value, indicating compost maturity. Humification could be responsible for the increase in humic acid proportion during composting. The increase in the aromatic bonds after composting, as indicated by the reduction of C/H and C/O ratios of HA and FA, resulted in a more stabilized product. A substantial increase in high molecular weight compounds along with a small increase in low molecular weight compounds was found in mature compost. Moreover the HA also had more complex organic compounds at this stage. Fluorescence spectral analysis showed an increase in the maximum wavelength of HA associated with the contents of aromatic structures in solution. A decrease in relative absorbance of HA at 1160 cm(-1), 2950 cm(-1) and 2850 cm(-1) was seen in the FTIR spectra indicating the decomposition of complex organic constituents, into simpler ones. Increase in the aromatic compounds with higher stability could account for the relative increase in the absorbance of HA at 1650 cm(-1) and 1250 cm(-1) of the mature compost. The composition of FA was not much altered, indicating most of the degradation of organic matter occurred in HA. Data from organic carbon, C/N ratio, elemental analysis, E(4)/E(6) ratio, gel chromatography, fluorescence and FTIR spectra indicated an increase in polycondensed structures and the presence of more stable organic matter in the mature compost.

Lymphotoxin-alpha (LTalpha) supports development of splenic follicular structure that is required for IgG responses

LTalpha-deficient (LTalpha-/-) mice show altered splenic microarchitecture. This includes loss of normal B cell-T cell compartmentalization, of follicular dendritic cell (FDC) clusters, and of ability to form germinal centers (GC). LTalpha-/- mice immunized with sheep red blood cells (SRBC) produced high levels of antigen-specific IgM but no IgG in either primary or secondary responses, demonstrating failure of Ig class switching. This inability to switch to IgG could have been due to the altered splenic microarchitecture in these mice. Alternatively, it could have been due directly to a requirement for LTalpha expression by lymphocytes cooperating in the antibody response. To investigate this, we performed reciprocal spleen cell transfers. When irradiated LTalpha-/- mice were reconstituted with wild-type splenocytes and immunized immediately with SRBC, splenic microarchitecture remained disturbed and there was no IgG response. In contrast, when irradiated wild-type animals received splenocytes from LTalpha-/- mice, follicle structure and a strong IgG response were retained. These data indicate that LTalpha-deficient B cells and T cells have no intrinsic defect in ability to generate an IgG response. Rather, the altered microenvironment characteristic of LTalpha-/- mice appears to result in impaired ability to switch to a productive IgG response. To investigate whether prolonged expression of LTalpha could alter the structure and function of spleen follicles, reciprocal bone marrow (BM) transplantation was performed. Six weeks after reconstitution of LTalpha-/- mice with wild-type BM, spleen follicle structure was partially restored, with return of FDC clusters and GC. B cell/T cell compartmentalization remained abnormal and white pulp zones were small. This was accompanied by restoration of IgG response to SRBC. Reconstitution of wild-type mice with LTalpha-/- BM resulted in loss of FDC clusters and GC, and loss of the IgG response, although compartmentalized B cell and T cell zones were largely retained. Thus, defective IgG production is not absolutely associated with abnormal B cell and T cell compartmentalization. Rather, expression of LTalpha supports the maturation of spleen follicle structure, including the development and maintenance of FDC clusters, which supports Ig class switching and an effective IgG response.

The parabrachial area: electrophysiological evidence for an involvement in visceral nociceptive processes

1. Neurons (n = 142) were recorded with extracellular micropipettes in the parabrachial (PB) area, in the anesthetized rat, some of them being antidromically driven from the centralis nucleus of the amygdala (Ce). The spontaneous activity of these neurons was low, (10th percentile < median frequency < 90th percentile; 0.01 < 0.3 < 11 Hz), and the activity of a very high proportion of the PB neurons (89%, 127/142) were affected by mechanical or thermal cutaneous stimuli almost exclusively in the noxious range; most of them were activated and received inputs from A delta and/or C fibers. 2. A majority of the PB neurons (66%, 93/142) were affected by visceral stimuli (bradykinin intraperitoneal and/or colorectal distension), almost exclusively in the noxious range; all of them (except one) were also affected by cutaneous noxious stimuli. The remaining neurons not affected by these visceral stimuli were only activated by cutaneous noxious stimuli (n = 35) or completely unresponsive (n = 14; i.e., only 10% of the whole population). 3. Thirty-five percent (49/142) of the whole population of PB neurons responded to bradykinin intraperitoneal and/or to strong colorectal distension with an intense and sustained increase of discharge. The response to bradykinin and to colorectal distension was often dissociated, i.e., the activation was often produced by only one of the stimuli the other being ineffective or inhibitory. The intensity of responses to visceral noxious stimuli was between 5-45 Hz with a mean value of 20 +/- 2 (SE) Hz (n = 49). The visceral activated neurons exhibited a clear capacity to encode the colorectal distension in noxious range: 1) the stimulus-response function was almost always positive and monotonic; 2) as for the individual curves, the slope of the mean curve progressively increased up to the highest interval of pressure tested (100-125 mmHg); and 3) the threshold for neuronal response to colorectal distension was between 25-100 mmHg with a mean pressure threshold of 56 +/- 24 (SD) mmHg (n = 19). Viscerosomatic convergence was observed for 84% of these neurons: they were also activated by thermal and/or mechanical cutaneous noxious stimuli while only 16% of them were activated only by visceral noxious stimulation. 4. Thirty-one percent (44/142) of the whole population of PB neurons were inhibited by both strong colorectal distension and intraperitoneal bradykinin (82%) or only by one of the stimuli being unresponsive to the other (18%).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Multifunctional phototheranostic nanomedicine for cancer imaging and treatment

Cancer, as one of the most life-threatening diseases, shows a high fatality rate around the world. When improving the therapeutic efficacy of conventional cancer treatments, researchers also conduct extensive studies into alternative therapeutic approaches, which are safe, valid, and economical. Phototherapies, including photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), are tumor-ablative and function-reserving oncologic interventions, showing strong potential in clinical cancer treatment. During phototherapies, the non-toxic phototherapeutic agents can be activated upon light irradiation to induce cell death without causing much damage to normal tissues. Besides, with the rapid development of nanotechnology in the past decades, phototheranostic nanomedicine also has attracted tremendous interests aiming to continuously refine their performance. Herein, we reviewed the recent progress of phototheranostic nanomedicine for improved cancer therapy. After a brief introduction of the therapeutic principles and related phototherapeutic agents for PDT and PTT, the existing works on developing of phototheranostic nanomedicine by mainly focusing on their categories and applications, particularly on phototherapy-synergized cancer immunotherapy, are comprehensively reviewed. More importantly, a brief conclusion and future challenges of phototheranostic nanomedicine from our point of view are delivered in the last part of this article.

The role of CCR7 in TH1 and TH2 cell localization and delivery of B cell help in vivo

Subsets of murine CD4+ T cells localize to different areas of the spleen after adoptive transfer. Naïve and T helper 1 (TH1) cells, which express the chemokine receptor CCR7, are home to the periarteriolar lymphoid sheath, whereas activated TH2 cells, which lack CCR7, form rings at the periphery of the T cell zones near B cell follicles. Retroviral transduction of TH2 cells with CCR7 forces them to localize in a TH1-like pattern and inhibits their participation in B cell help in vivo but not in vitro. Thus, differential expression of chemokine receptors results in unique cellular migration patterns that are important for effective immune responses.

Risk factors for oesophageal cancer in northeast China

A hospital-based case-control study of oesophageal cancer was carried out in the Heilongjiang Province, a low-risk area for oesophageal cancer in China. From May 1985 to May 1989, 196 histologically confirmed cases and 392 controls with other (non-neoplastic) diseases were personally interviewed in the wards of 5 major hospitals. Information was obtained about usual consumption in the early 1980s of 32 major contributors to the diet in the province, socio-demographic status, smoking and alcohol consumption. Odds ratios (OR) were obtained from logistic regression models, and confounding was controlled by means of multivariate models. Smoking and alcohol consumption were major risk factors for oesophageal cancer in this population. Smokers of handmade cigarettes exhibited a particularly high risk. A near multiplicative synergism was found between smoking and alcohol consumption. There was a significant inverse dose-risk trend for combined consumption of vegetables and fruits; a 300-g increase per day lowered risk by 35%. Vitamin C intake was negatively associated with risk; a 100-mg increase per day lowered risk by 39%. Our data suggest a modifying effect of vitamin C and beta-carotene on risk associated with smoking, but the power of analyses was low. Salt, salt-preserved foods and pickled vegetables were not associated with increased risk. High temperature of meals and drinks was a strong risk indicator in this population. The strength of tea and overall tea consumption were independent determinants of the risk.

Pre-transplant cytomegalovirus (CMV) serostatus remains the most important determinant of CMV reactivation after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in the era of surveillance and preemptive therapy

Between January 2001 and June 2008, 315 adult patients (median age 43 years, range 16-65) including 203 males and 112 females undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) had serial monitoring for cytomegalovirus (CMV) followed by initiation of preemptive therapy. The majority (62.1%) had a conventional myeloablative transplant with 116 (36.9%) having a reduced-intensity conditioning (RIC) transplant, using either matched sibling/family (63.3%) or unrelated donors (36.7%). Graft source was peripheral blood stem cells in 257 (81.5%), bone marrow in 41 (13.1%), and cord blood in 16 (5.4%). T-cell depletion with anti-thymocyte globulin or alemtuzumab was used in 35%. Based upon CMV serostatus, patients were classified into low risk (donor [D]-/recipient [R]-), intermediate risk (D+/R-), or high risk (D-/R+ or D+/R+). Serial weekly monitoring for CMV viremia was performed using a qualitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and when positive, quantification was done using either pp65 antigen or a quantitative PCR. CMV reactivation was seen in 123 patients (39.1%) at a median of 50 days post HSCT (range 22-1978). CMV serostatus was the most important risk factor with incidence of 53% in the high-risk group (53.3%) compared with 10.2% in the intermediate risk and 0% in the low-risk group (P<0.0001). Other significant risk factors identified included use of alemtuzumab during conditioning (P=0.03), RIC transplants (P=0.06), and the presence of acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) (P<0.0001). On a multivariate analysis, CMV serostatus, RIC transplants, and acute GVHD remained independent predictors of CMV reactivation. All were treated with antiviral therapy with responses seen in 109 (88.6%). Sixteen patients (13%) developed CMV disease at a median of 59 days post HSCT (range 26 days-46 months), 8 of whom died. At a median follow up of 43 months (range 6-93), 166 patients (52.6%) are alive with a significantly higher survival among patients without CMV reactivation (57.2%) as compared with patients with CMV reactivation (45.5%; P=0.049). CMV reactivation and disease remains a major problem in high-risk patients undergoing allogeneic HSCT. Novel prophylactic measures such as immunotherapy and drug prophylaxis need to be considered in this specific group of patients.

Endoscopic third ventriculostomy in the management of obstructive hydrocephalus: an outcome analysis

Object. The purpose of this paper is to elucidate the safety and efficacy of, and indications and outcome prognosis for endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) in 58 patients with obstructive hydrocephalus.

Methods. Between September 1999 and April 2003, 58 ETVs were performed in 58 patients with obstructive hydrocephalus (36 male and 22 female patients) at the authors' institution. The ages of the patients ranged from 5 to 67 years (mean age 35 years) and the follow-up period ranged from 3 to 41 months (mean duration of follow up 24 months). Patients were divided into four subgroups based on the cause of the obstructive hydrocephalus: 21 with intracranial tumors; 11 with intracranial cysts; 18 with aqueductal stenosis; and eight with intracranial hemorrhage or infection. Both univariate and multi-variate statistical analyses were performed to assess the prognostic relevance of the cause of the obstructive hydrocephalus, early postoperative clinical appearance, and neuroimaging findings in predicting the result of the ETV.

The survival rate was 87% at the end of the 1st year and 84% at the end of the 2nd year post-ETV. One month after ETV an overall clinical improvement was observed in 45 (77.6%) of 58 patients. If we also consider the successful revision of ETV in two patients, a success rate of 78.3% (47 of 60 patients) was reached. The ETV was successful in 17 (81%) of 21 patients with intracranial tumors, nine (82%) of 11 with cystic lesions, 16 (88.9%) of 18 with aqueductal stenosis, and three (38%) of eight with intracranial hemorrhage or infection. A Kaplan—Meier analysis illustrates that the percentage of functioning ETVs stabilizes between 75 and 80% 1 year after the operation. In a comparison of results 1 year after ETV, the authors found that the aqueductal stenosis subgroup had the highest proportion of functioning ETV (89%). The proportions of the tumor and cyst subgroups were 84 and 82%, respectively, whereas the proportion was only 50% in the ventriculitis/intracranial hemorrhage subgroup (strata log-rank test: χ2 = 7.93, p = 0.0475).

In the present study, ETV failed in eight patients (13.8%) and the time to failure after the procedure was a mean of 3.4 months (median 2 months, range 0–8 months). The logistic regression analysis confirmed an early postoperative improvement (within 2 weeks after ETV, significance [Sig] of log likelihood ratio [LLR] < 0.0001) and a patent stoma on cine phase—contrast magnetic resonance (MR) images (Sig of LLR = 0.0002) were significant prognostic factors for a successful ETV. The results demonstrated the multivariate model (B = − 53.7309, standard error = 325.1732, Wald = 0.0273, Sig = 0.8688) could predict a correct result in terms of success or failure from ETV surgery in 89.66% of observed cases. The Pearson chi-square test demonstrated that little reliance could be placed on the finding of a reduced size of the lateral ventricle (χ2 = 5.305, p = 0.07) on neuroimaging studies within 2 weeks after ETV, but it became a significant predictive factor at 3 months (χ2 = 8.992, p = 0.011) and 6 months (χ2 = 10.586, p = 0.005) post-ETV. Major complications occurred in seven patients (12.1%), including intraoperative venous bleeding in three, arterial bleeding in one, and occlusion of the stoma in three patients. The overall mortality rate was 10.3% (six patients). One of these patients died of pulmonary infection and another of ventriculitis. Four additional patients died of progression of malignant tumor during the follow-up period.

Conclusions. The results indicate that ETV is a most effective treatment in cases of obstructive hydrocephalus that is caused by aqueductal stenosis and space-occupying lesions. For patients with infections or intraventricular bleeding, ETV has considerable effects in selected cases with confirmed CSF dynamic studies. Early clinical and cine phase—contrast MR imaging findings after the operation play an important role in predicting patient outcomes after ETV. The predictive value of an alteration in ventricle size, especially during the early stage following ETV, is unsatisfactory. Seventy-five percent of ETV failures occur within 6 months after surgery. A repeated ventriculostomy should be considered to be a sufficient treatment option in cases in which stoma dysfunction is suspected.

Expression profile of long noncoding RNAs in cartilage from knee osteoarthritis patients

OBJECTIVES

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have emerged as a novel class of regulatory molecules involved in various biological processes, but their role in osteoarthritis (OA) remains unknown. Therefore, we aimed to reveal lncRNAs expression profile in human osteoarthritic cartilage and explore the potential functions of lncRNAs in OA.

METHODS

The expression profiles of lncRNAs and mRNAs in OA cartilage were obtained using microarray and verified by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Bioinformatics analyses including lncRNA classification and subgroup analysis, gene ontology (GO) analysis, pathway analysis, network analysis and target prediction were performed.

RESULTS

There were 3007 upregulated lncRNAs and 1707 downregulated lncRNAs in OA cartilage compared with normal samples (Fold change ≥ 2.0). In addition, 2136 mRNAs were upregulated and 2,241 mRNAs were downregulated in OA cartilage (Fold change ≥ 2.0). The qRT-PCR results of six dysregulated lncRNAs were consistent with the microarray data. 106 lncRNAs and 291 mRNAs composed the coding-non-coding gene co-expression network (CNC network). In the 600 top differentially expressed lncRNAs, 48 lncRNAs were predicted to have more than five cis-regulated target genes and up to 530 lncRNAs might regulate their trans target genes through collaboration with transcriptional factor (TF) SP1. The positive correlation between lncRNA uc.343 and predicted target homeobox gene C8 (HOXC8) expression in SW1353 cells treating with interleukin-1 beta confirmed the target prediction to some extent.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed the expression pattern of lncRNAs in OA cartilage and predicted the potential function and targets, which indicated that lncRNAs may be new biomarkers for diagnosis or novel therapeutic targets of OA.

MicroRNA-320 regulates matrix metalloproteinase-13 expression in chondrogenesis and interleukin-1β-induced chondrocyte responses

OBJECTIVE

Metalloproteinases (MMPs) are key regulators of osteoarthritis (OA) and collagen degradation and have been shown to participate in endochondral ossification. The aim of this study was to determine whether microRNA-320 (miR-320) regulates the expression of MMP-13 in chondrogenesis and inflammation.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

miR-320 expression was assessed in vitro, in the ATDC5 cell model of chondrogenesis and in interleukin-1β (IL-1β)-treated primary mouse chondrocytes (PMCs), and in vivo, in normal and OA human cartilage by in situ hybridization. ATDC5 and PMCs were transfected with miR-320 or its antisense inhibitor (anti-miR-320), respectively. The roles of activated MAP kinases (MAPK) and NF-κB were evaluated by using specific inhibitors. Direct interaction between miR-320 and its putative binding site in the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of Mmp-13 mRNA was confirmed by the luciferase reporter assay.

RESULTS

miR-320 expression was elevated in chondrogenic and hypertrophic ATDC5, while significantly reduced in OA cartilage compared with normal cartilage. Stimulation with IL-1β led to a significant reduction in miR-320 expression in PMCs. Upregulation of MMP-13 expression was correlated with downregulation of miR-320 expression in both PMCs and ATDC5. Overexpression of miR-320 suppressed the activity of a reporter construct containing the 3'-UTR and inhibited MMP-13 expression in both ATDC5 and IL-1β-treated PMCs, while treatment with anti-miR-320 enhanced MMP-13 expression. NF-κB and MAPK activation downregulated miR-320 expression.

CONCLUSION

Cartilage development and homeostasis are influenced by miR-320, which directly targets MMP-13 and regulates chondrogenesis and the IL-1β-stimulated catabolic effect in mouse chondrocytes.

The prevalence of schizophrenia in mainland China: evidence from epidemiological surveys

OBJECTIVE

Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder. Its prevalence appears inconsistent in different regions of China; thus, we conducted this meta-analysis to estimate the prevalence of schizophrenia in mainland China.

METHOD

Studies on the prevalence of schizophrenia in mainland China were identified from electronic databases up to July 2013. Meta-analysis was used for prevalence of schizophrenia estimate.

RESULTS

For lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia, prevalence of 5.44 per 1000 (overall), 5.33 per 1000 (males), 5.51 per 1000 (females), 6.60 per 1000 (urban) and 4.73 per 1000 (rural) were estimated; there was no significant difference between males and females, while prevalence for urban dwellers was higher than for rural (OR=1.44, 95%CI: 1.30-1.59). For point prevalence of schizophrenia, prevalence of 4.62 per 1000 (overall), 4.63 per 1000 (males), 4.95 per 1000 (females), 5.15 per 1000 (urban) and 4.44 per 1000 (rural) were estimated; no statistical difference was found in males and females, but prevalence for urban dwellers was higher than for rural (OR=1.20; 95%CI: 1.02-1.41).

CONCLUSION

The prevalence estimate results were consistent with the international prevalence estimate of schizophrenia in mainland China. There was no significant difference between males and females, while prevalence for urban dwellers was higher than for rural.

Mapping the distribution of the outer hair cell motility voltage sensor by electrical amputation

The outer hair cell (OHC) possesses a nonlinear charge movement whose characteristics indicate that it represents the voltage sensor responsible for OHC mechanical activity. OHC mechanical activity is known to exist along a restricted extent of the cell's length. We have used a simultaneous partitioning microchamber and whole cell voltage clamp technique to electrically isolate sections of the OHC membrane and find that the nonlinear charge movement is also restricted along the cell's length. Apical and basal portions of the OHC are devoid of voltage sensors, corresponding to regions of the cell where the subsurface cisternae and/or the mechanical responses are absent. We conclude that the physical domain of the motility voltage sensor corresponds to that of the mechanical effector and speculate that sensor and effector reside within one intra membranous molecular species, perhaps an evolved nonconducting or poorly conducting voltage-dependent ion channel.

Distinct roles of lymphotoxin alpha and the type I tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor in the establishment of follicular dendritic cells from non-bone marrow-derived cells

In mice deficient in either lymphotoxin alpha (LT-alpha) or type I tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR-I), organized clusters of follicular dendritic cells (FDC) and germinal centers (GC) are absent from the spleen. We investigated the role of LT-alpha and TNFR-I in the establishment of spleen FDC and GC structure by using reciprocal bone marrow (BM) transfer. When LT-alpha-deficient mice were reconstituted with wild-type BM, FDC organization and the ability to form GC were restored, indicating that the LT-alpha-expressing cells required to establish organized FDC are derived from BM. The role of LT-alpha in establishing organized FDC structure was further investigated by the transfer of complement receptor 1 and 2 (CR1/2)-deficient BM cells into LT-alpha-deficient mice. Organized FDC were identified with both the FDC-M1 and anti-CR1 monoclonal antibodies in these BM-chimeric mice, indicating that these cells were derived from the LT-alpha-deficient recipient. Thus, expression of LT-alpha in the BM-derived cells, but not in the non-BM-derived cells, is required for the maturation of FDC from non-BM precursor cells. In contrast, when TNFR-I-deficient mice were reconstituted with wild-type BM, they showed no detectable FDC clusters or GC formation. This indicates that TNFR-I expression on non-BM-derived cellular components is necessary for the establishment of these lymphoid structures. TNFR-I-deficient BM was able to restore FDC organization and GC formation in LT-alpha-deficient mice, indicating that formation of these structures does not require TNFR-I expression on BM-derived cells. The data in this study demonstrate that FDC organization and GC formation are controlled by both LT-alpha-expressing BM-derived cells and by TNFR-I-expressing non-BM-derived cells.

Phox homology domains specifically bind phosphatidylinositol phosphates

The recruitment of specific cytosolic proteins to intracellular membranes through binding phosphorylated derivatives of phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) controls such processes as endocytosis, regulated exocytosis, cytoskeletal organization, and cell signaling. Protein modules such as FVYE domains and PH domains that bind specifically to PtdIns 3-phosphate (PtdIns-3-P) and polyphosphoinositides, respectively, can direct such membrane targeting. Here we show that two representative Phox homology (PX) domains selectively bind to specific phosphatidylinositol phosphates. The PX domain of Vam7p selectively binds PtdIns-3-P, while the PX domain of the CPK PI-3 kinase selectively binds PtdIns-4,5-P(2). In contrast, the PX domain of Vps5p displays no binding to any PtdInsPs that were tested. In addition, the double mutant (Y42A/L48Q) of the PX domain of Vam7p, reported to cause vacuolar trafficking defects in yeast, has a dramatically decreased level of binding to PtdIns-3-P. These data reveal that the membrane targeting function of the Vam7p PX domain is based on its ability to associate with PtdIns-3-P, analogous to the function of FYVE domains.