51
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Rieser JM, Li TD, Tingle JL, Goldman DI, Mendelson JR 3rd. Functional consequences of convergently evolved microscopic skin features on snake locomotion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2018264118. [PMID: 33547241 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2018264118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The small structures that decorate biological surfaces can significantly affect behavior, yet the diversity of animal-environment interactions essential for survival makes ascribing functions to structures challenging. Microscopic skin textures may be particularly important for snakes and other limbless locomotors, where substrate interactions are mediated solely through body contact. While previous studies have characterized ventral surface features of some snake species, the functional consequences of these textures are not fully understood. Here, we perform a comparative study, combining atomic force microscopy measurements with mathematical modeling to generate predictions that link microscopic textures to locomotor performance. We discover an evolutionary convergence in the ventral skin structures of a few sidewinding specialist vipers that inhabit sandy deserts-an isotropic texture that is distinct from the head-to-tail-oriented, micrometer-sized spikes observed on a phylogenetically broad sampling of nonsidewinding vipers and other snakes from diverse habitats and wide geographic range. A mathematical model that relates structural directionality to frictional anisotropy reveals that isotropy enhances movement during sidewinding, whereas anisotropy improves movement during slithering via lateral undulation of the body. Our results highlight how an integrated approach can provide quantitative predictions for structure-function relationships and insights into behavioral and evolutionary adaptations in biological systems.
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52
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Herrel A, Lowie A, Miralles A, Gaucher P, Kley NJ, Measey J, Tolley KA. Burrowing in blind snakes: A preliminary analysis of burrowing forces and consequences for the evolution of morphology. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2021; 304:2292-2302. [PMID: 34089306 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Burrowing is a common behavior in vertebrates. An underground life-style offers many advantages but also poses important challenges including the high energetic cost of burrowing. Scolecophidians are a group of morphologically derived subterranean snakes that show great diversity in form and function. Although it has been suggested that leptotyphlopids and anomalepidids mostly use existing underground passageways, typhlopids are thought to create their own burrows. However, the mechanisms used to create burrows and the associated forces that animals may be able to generate remain unknown. Here, we provide the first data on push forces in scolecophidians and compare them with those in some burrowing alethinophidian snakes. Our results show that typhlopids are capable of generating higher forces for a given size than other snakes. The observed differences are not due to variation in body diameter or length, suggesting fundamental differences in the mechanics of burrowing or the way in which axial muscles are used. Qualitative observations of skull and vertebral shape suggest that the higher forces exerted by typhlopids may have impacted the evolution of their anatomy. Our results provide the basis for future studies exploring the diversity of form and function in this fascinating group of animals. Quantitative comparisons of the cranial and vertebral shape in addition to collecting functional and ecological data on a wider array of species would be particularly important to test the patterns described here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Herrel
- Département Adaptations du Vivant, UMR 7179 C.N.R.S/M.N.H.N, Bâtiment d'Anatomie Comparée, Paris, France.,Department of Biology, Evolutionary Morphology of Vertebrates, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Aurélien Lowie
- Department of Biology, Evolutionary Morphology of Vertebrates, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Aurélien Miralles
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Gaucher
- Laboratoire Ecologie, Evolution, Interactions des Systèmes amazoniens Centre de Recherche de Montabo, Cayenne cédex, France
| | - Nathan J Kley
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - John Measey
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Center for Invasion Biology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Krystal A Tolley
- Kirstenbosch Research Center, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Cape Town, South Africa.,School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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53
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Davy CM, Shirose L, Campbell D, Dillon R, McKenzie C, Nemeth N, Braithwaite T, Cai H, Degazio T, Dobbie T, Egan S, Fotherby H, Litzgus JD, Manorome P, Marks S, Paterson JE, Sigler L, Slavic D, Slavik E, Urquhart J, Jardine C. Revisiting Ophidiomycosis ( Snake Fungal Disease) After a Decade of Targeted Research. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:665805. [PMID: 34136555 PMCID: PMC8200636 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.665805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are typically characterized by novelty (recent detection) and by increasing incidence, distribution, and/or pathogenicity. Ophidiomycosis, also called snake fungal disease, is caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (formerly “ophiodiicola”). Ophidiomycosis has been characterized as an EID and as a potential threat to populations of Nearctic snakes, sparking over a decade of targeted research. However, the severity of this threat is unclear. We reviewed the available literature to quantify incidence and effects of ophidiomycosis in Nearctic snakes, and to evaluate whether the evidence supports the ongoing characterization of ophidiomycosis as an EID. Data from Canada remain scarce, so we supplemented the literature review with surveys for O. ophidiicola in the Canadian Great Lakes region. Peer-reviewed reports of clinical signs consistent with ophidiomycosis in free-ranging, Nearctic snakes date back to at least 1998, and retrospective molecular testing of samples extend the earliest confirmed record to 1986. Diagnostic criteria varied among publications (n = 33), confounding quantitative comparisons. Ophidiomycosis was diagnosed or suspected in 36/121 captive snakes and was fatal in over half of cases (66.7%). This result may implicate captivity-related stress as a risk factor for mortality from ophidiomycosis, but could also reflect reporting bias (i.e., infections are more likely to be detected in captive snakes, and severe cases are more likely to be reported). In contrast, ophidiomycosis was diagnosed or suspected in 441/2,384 free-ranging snakes, with mortality observed in 43 (9.8 %). Ophidiomycosis was only speculatively linked to population declines, and we found no evidence that the prevalence of the pathogen or disease increased over the past decade of targeted research. Supplemental surveys and molecular (qPCR) testing in Ontario, Canada detected O. ophidiicola on 76 of 657 free-ranging snakes sampled across ~136,000 km2. The pathogen was detected at most sites despite limited and haphazard sampling. No large-scale mortality was observed. Current evidence supports previous suggestions that the pathogen is a widespread, previously unrecognized endemic, rather than a novel pathogen. Ophidiomycosis may not pose an imminent threat to Nearctic snakes, but further research should investigate potential sublethal effects of ophidiomycosis such as altered reproductive success that could impact population growth, and explore whether shifting environmental conditions may alter host susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina M Davy
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Peterborough, ON, Canada.,Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Leonard Shirose
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Doug Campbell
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Rachel Dillon
- Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Christina McKenzie
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Nicole Nemeth
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | | | - Hugh Cai
- Animal Health Laboratory, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | | | - Tammy Dobbie
- Point Pelee National Park, Leamington, ON, Canada
| | - Sean Egan
- Egan Fife Animal Hospital, Chatham, ON, Canada
| | | | | | - Pilar Manorome
- Ontario Parks, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Steve Marks
- Essex County Field Naturalists' Club, c/o Ojibway Nature Centre, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - James E Paterson
- Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Lynne Sigler
- Agriculture, Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Durda Slavic
- Animal Health Laboratory, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Emily Slavik
- Ontario Parks, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | | | - Claire Jardine
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, ON, Canada
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54
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Haskins DL, Brown MK, Meichner K, Tuberville TD, Gogal RM. Mercury immunotoxicity in the brown water snake (Nerodia taxispilota): An in vitro study. J Appl Toxicol 2021; 42:180-189. [PMID: 34013568 DOI: 10.1002/jat.4200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) is a heavy metal that enters the environment through natural and anthropogenic means. Once in the environment, Hg can biomagnify in food webs and is known to cause immunotoxic effects to wildlife. Compared with other vertebrates, knowledge of the reptilian immune system is lacking, especially in snakes. Further, even less is known about the impact of environmental contaminants on snake immunity. This gap in knowledge is largely due to an absence of established immune-based assays or specific reagents for these species. In this study, brown watersnakes (Nerodia taxispilota; n = 23) were captured on the Savannah River (Augusta, Georgia, USA), weighed, measured, bled, and released. Peripheral blood leukocytes (24 h old) were enriched and evaluated with an established mammalian in vitro lymphocyte proliferation assay. Enriched leukocytes were then exposed to mercury chloride (HgCl2 ) at 3.75, 37.5, and 75 μM. Total mercury (THg) in whole blood was also quantified. Snake peripheral blood leukocyte enrichment yielded >90% lymphocytes with viabilities averaging >70%. Exposure to HgCl2 resulted in significant dose-dependent suppression of proliferative responses relative to spontaneous proliferation at 37.5 and 75 μM (both p ≤ 0.01) but not 3.75 μM (p = 0.99). Mean ± 1 SE concentration of THg in whole blood was 0.127 ± 0.027 mg/kg (wet weight). Based on the in vitro findings with HgCl2 , snakes in systems with heavy Hg pollution may be at risk of immunosuppression, but N. taxispilota at the site in this study appear to be at low risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Haskins
- Interdisciplinary Toxicology Program, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.,D. B.Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.,University of Georgia's Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, Aiken, South Carolina, USA
| | - M Kyle Brown
- D. B.Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.,University of Georgia's Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, Aiken, South Carolina, USA
| | - Kristina Meichner
- Department of Pathology, University of Georgia's College of Veterinary Medicine, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Tracey D Tuberville
- University of Georgia's Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, Aiken, South Carolina, USA
| | - Robert M Gogal
- Department of Biosciences and Diagnostic Imaging, University of Georgia's College of Veterinary Medicine, Athens, Georgia, USA
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55
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Patania OM, Troan BV, Cullen JM. Ductal Plate Malformations in Captive Snakes. Vet Pathol 2021; 58:736-742. [PMID: 33938322 DOI: 10.1177/03009858211011941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Ductal plate malformations are abnormalities in the liver that arise from inappropriate or incomplete remodeling of the embryologic ductal plate. Various types of ductal plate malformations are reported in the human and veterinary literature, most commonly affecting domestic mammalian species but also fish. We investigated the occurrence and described the histopathologic features of ductal plate malformations in captive snakes. Malformations were identified in 18 snakes: 10 colubrids, 6 vipers, and 2 boids. There was no sex predilection, and the mean age was 17 years. The majority of lesions were incidental with most snakes having one or more comorbidities, most commonly neoplasia or systemic inflammation, that resulted in natural death or euthanasia. Ductal plate malformations in all livers were broadly characterized by a well-demarcated nodule of irregular bile ducts embedded within a varying amount of fibrous stroma. Malformations were further categorized based on the amount of fibrous stroma and dilation of the bile ducts as von Meyenburg complexes, cystic liver disease, and/or an intermediate hybrid subtype representative of cysts arising within von Meyenburg complexes. Histochemical and immunohistochemical staining, including Gomori's trichome and pan-cytokeratin, respectively, were applied on select cases to confirm histologic features. Malignant transformation was not identified within this population.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brigid V Troan
- 6798North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
- North Carolina Zoo, Asheboro, NC, USA
| | - John M Cullen
- 6798North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
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56
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Sun PL, Yang CK, Li WT, Lai WY, Fan YC, Huang HC, Yu PH. Infection with Nannizziopsis guarroi and Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola in reptiles in Taiwan. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:764-775. [PMID: 33638294 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Fungal infection is an emerging threat to reptiles. The main pathogens are fungi of the genera Nannizziopsis, Paranannizziopsis and Ophidiomyces. The clinical symptoms range from mild skin lesions to the dissemination of internal organs and even death. Most of the reported cases are from Europe, North America and Australia. In this study, we report the Nannizziopsis guarroi infection in one captive inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps), one captive green iguana (Iguana iguana) and Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola infection in one wild red-banded snake (Dinodon rufozonatum) and one wild Chinese cobra (Naja atra) in Taiwan. The infections were confirmed by the presence of fungal elements in the tissue. The pathogens were identified based on their morphological and DNA sequence characteristics. The susceptibility profiles of the fungal strains to nine antifungal drugs were obtained using broth microdilution methods. The presence of both fungal species in Asia highlights the urgent need for surveillance and close monitoring of reptile infections to prevent them from spreading and to the possible collapse of reptile populations in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Lun Sun
- Department of Dermatology and Research Laboratory of Medical Mycology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou Branch, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Kai Yang
- Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien County, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Ta Li
- Fishhead Labs, LLC, Stuart, FL, USA.,Pangolin International Biomedical Consultant Ltd., Keelung, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Yin Lai
- Institute of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.,National Taiwan University Veterinary Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yun-Chen Fan
- Department of Dermatology and Research Laboratory of Medical Mycology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou Branch, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Huei-Chuen Huang
- Institute of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.,National Taiwan University Veterinary Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Pin-Huan Yu
- Institute of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.,National Taiwan University Veterinary Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
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57
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Bagardi M, Bardi E, Manfredi M, Segala A, Belfatto A, Cusaro S, Romussi S, Brambilla PG. Two-dimensional and doppler echocardiographic evaluation in twenty-one healthy Python regius. Vet Med Sci 2021; 7:1006-1014. [PMID: 33621445 PMCID: PMC8136947 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Echocardiographic evaluation is a diagnostic tool for the in vivo diagnosis of heart diseases. Specific and unique anatomical characteristics of the ophidian heart such as the single ventricular cavity, a tubular sinus venosus opening into the right atrium, the presence of three arterial trunks and extreme mobility in the coelomic cavity during the cardiac cycle directly affect echocardiographic examination. Twenty‐one awake, healthy ball pythons (Python regius) were analysed based on guidelines for performing echocardiographic examinations. Imaging in the sagittal plane demonstrated the caudal vena cava, sinus venosus valve (SVV) and right atrium and the various portions of the ventricle, horizontal septum, left aortic arch and pulmonary artery. Transverse imaging depicted the spatial relationship of the left and right aortic arches, the pulmonary artery and the horizontal septum. Basic knowledge of cardiac blood flow in reptiles is necessary to understand the echocardiographic anatomy. The flow of the arterial trunks and SVV was analysed using pulsed‐wave Doppler based on the approach used for humans and companion mammals. The walls and diameters of the cavum arteriosum, cavum venosum and cavum pulmonale were also evaluated. This study should improve the veterinarian's knowledge of ophidian heart basal physiology and contribute to the development of cardiology in reptiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mara Bagardi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Edoardo Bardi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Martina Manfredi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Arianna Segala
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Antonella Belfatto
- Department of Electronic, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Stefano Cusaro
- Ambulatorio Veterinario Associato Cusaro, Merlo, Porati, Pozzoli, Novara, Italy
| | - Stefano Romussi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, Milano, Italy
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58
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Ledbetter EC, Marion JS, Morrisey JK. Amniotic membrane grafting for traumatic complete spectaculectomy and keratomalacia in a Boelen's python (Simalia boeleni). Vet Ophthalmol 2021; 24:295-300. [PMID: 33590964 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the surgical repair of traumatic complete spectaculectomy and keratomalacia in a snake. ANIMALS A 10.5-year-old, female, Boelen's python (Simalia boeleni) was presented with iatrogenic, near-complete spectaculectomy associated with bacterial keratitis, keratomalacia, and hypopyon. PROCEDURES Corneal samples for cytological evaluation and bacterial culture were collected. Following medical stabilization of the bacterial keratitis, a double-layered dry amniotic membrane graft was placed. The first amniotic membrane layer was placed over the cornea with the edges tucked under the peripheral remnants of the spectacle and secured in place with fibrin glue. The second amniotic membrane layer was placed over the entirety of the spectacle remnant and secured in place with a combination of fibrin glue and sutures. Topical and systemic antimicrobials, topical ophthalmic lubricants, and systemic non-steroidal anti-inflammatory therapy were administered postoperatively. RESULTS Heterophilic keratitis was identified by cytology and Enterobacter cloacae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus sciuri were cultured from the corneal samples. The amniotic membrane grafts remained in place for several weeks. At 4 months postoperatively, the spectacle was completely regenerated, the subspectacular space restored, and the cornea was transparent. Spectacular vascularization and fibrosis then slowly cleared over the following 6 months. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Amniotic membrane grafting with fibrin glue is a relatively simple and effective surgical method to reconstruct extensive defects in the reptilian spectacle and to assist in the management of bacterial keratitis associated with spectacle avulsion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric C Ledbetter
- From the Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Jonah S Marion
- From the Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - James K Morrisey
- From the Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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Rockwell K, Boykin K, Padlo J, Ford C, Aschebrock S, Mitchell M. Evaluating the efficacy of alfaxalone in corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus). Vet Anaesth Analg 2021; 48:364-371. [PMID: 33658163 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2021.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Alfaxalone is a popular veterinary anesthetic; however, research on this anesthetic in snakes has been limited to ball pythons, garter snakes and several Australian species. The objective was to evaluate the anesthetic effects of alfaxalone in corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus), a popular pet snake. STUDY DESIGN Prospective, randomized crossover study. ANIMALS A total of eight corn snakes. METHODS In phase I, snakes were subcutaneously administered three doses of alfaxalone (5, 10 and 15 mg kg-1) in the cranial third of the body to determine the most effective dose. In phase II, a dose of 15 mg kg-1 was administered in the cranial and caudal thirds of the snakes to determine if injection site affected anesthesia duration. Heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (fR), righting reflex, escape response, tail pinch, needle prick and tongue flick were monitored at baseline and 5 minute intervals until the snakes fully recovered. RESULTS Duration of anesthesia differed significantly, with higher doses lasting longer than lower doses: 5 mg kg-1 [23.8 ± 4.4 (15-30) minutes]; 10 mg kg-1 [40.6 ± 9.4 (25-55) minutes]; and 15 mg kg-1 [56.9 ± 8.4 (50-70) minutes], mean ± standard deviation (range). The tail pinch reflex was not completely lost in phase 1. There was a significant change in fR over time, but this was not related to dose. HR was not different by time or dose. Duration of anesthesia was not different after administration of alfaxalone (15 mg kg-1) in the cranial third versus the caudal third of the body; however, there was a significant decrease in HR and fR at this dose, regardless of injection site. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Based on these results, alfaxalone (15 mg kg-1) provides adequate anesthesia for brief procedures or intubation; however, additional analgesia is required for painful procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Rockwell
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Kimberly Boykin
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Jordan Padlo
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Courtney Ford
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Storm Aschebrock
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Mark Mitchell
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.
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60
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Rothschild B. Survey of Post-Cranial Skeletal Pathology in Snakes. J Comp Pathol 2021; 183:39-44. [PMID: 33714430 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2021.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Previous reports on skeletal pathology in captive snakes did not clarify the relationship of lesions to captive or free-ranging status. In this study, post-cranial skeletons from 7,950 captive and free-ranging snakes in nine of the major North American collections were examined macroscopically, microscopically and radiologically for the presence of pathology. Micro-computerized tomography was performed on two skeletons on which surface microscopy failed to provide a definitive diagnosis. Osteomyelitis was identified in the vertebrae of 24 snakes and spondyloarthropathy in one snake. Neoplasia or congenital anomalies were not found. Osteomyelitis was four times as common in Viperidae than in Colubridae and twice as common as in Boidae, independent of captive or free-ranging status. A lytic lesion in the vertebrae of one snake was suggestive of fungal disease. The progression of bone lesions was greater in captive snakes, but the prevalence was independent of captive or free-ranging status. The results of this study indicate that bone alterations, previously proposed as neoplastic disease, in archival snake skeletons were most likely of infectious aetiology, and establish macroscopic examination as a useful technique for characterizing skeletal pathology in snakes.
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61
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Valenza L, Allavena R, Haworth M, Cochrane J, Henning J. Diagnosis and Treatment of Snake Envenomation in Dogs in Queensland, Australia. Vet Sci 2021; 8:vetsci8020014. [PMID: 33498447 PMCID: PMC7909414 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8020014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Australia has some of the most venous snakes in the world, and envenomations of domestic dogs are common, but clinical signs as well as the diagnostic procedures and treatments of snake envenomations are poorly described. Therefore, we invited veterinary clinics in the state of Queensland, Australia, to provide detailed data on snake envenomation cases in dogs. A total of 230 cases were reported from 19 veterinary hospitals, with an average of 12.1 dogs per clinic, per year. Detailed case data were provided from 20 dogs-of these, 65.0% (13/20) were envenomated during the daytime, with collapse and paresis being the most common signs reported by owners. The median time between the onset of clinical signs and admission to the veterinary hospital was 60 min. Clinical signs were the sole diagnostic modality utilised by veterinarians in 30.0% (6/20) of cases. Activated clotting time was the most common diagnostic procedure conducted, while snake venom detection kits (SVDK) were only used in 15.0% (3/20) of cases. Of the dogs that received antivenom (85.0%, 17/20), the tiger/multibrown combination (3000 units tiger/4000 units brown) was predominately (13/17) provided. Three of the 17 dogs that received antivenom (17.6%) died or were euthanised. About 82.4% (14/17) of the dogs treated with antivenom, but only 33.3% (1/3) of the dogs not treated with antivenom, recovered (p = 0.140). Overall, veterinarians relied frequently on medical history, clinical signs, and diagnostic tests other than the SVDK and, thus, most likely, administered snake envenomation treatment based on their clinical experience.
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Liang Q, Huynh TM, Ng YZ, Isbister GK, Hodgson WC. In Vitro Neurotoxicity of Chinese Krait ( Bungarus multicinctus) Venom and Neutralization by Antivenoms. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:49. [PMID: 33440641 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13010049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Bungarus multicinctus, the Chinese krait, is a highly venomous elapid snake which causes considerable morbidity and mortality in southern China. B. multicinctus venom contains pre-synaptic PLA2 neurotoxins (i.e., β-bungarotoxins) and post-synaptic neurotoxins (i.e., α-bungarotoxins). We examined the in vitro neurotoxicity of B. multicinctus venom, and the efficacy of specific monovalent Chinese B. multicinctus antivenom, and Australian polyvalent elapid snake antivenom, against venom-induced neurotoxicity. B. multicinctus venom (1-10 μg/mL) abolished indirect twitches in the chick biventer cervicis nerve-muscle preparation as well as attenuating contractile responses to exogenous ACh and CCh, but not KCl. This indicates a post-synaptic neurotoxic action but myotoxicity was not evident. Given that post-synaptic α-neurotoxins have a more rapid onset than pre-synaptic neurotoxins, the activity of the latter in the whole venom will be masked. The prior addition of Chinese B. multicinctus antivenom (12 U/mL) or Australian polyvalent snake antivenom (15 U/mL), markedly attenuated the neurotoxic actions of B. multicinctus venom (3 μg/mL) and prevented the inhibition of contractile responses to ACh and CCh. The addition of B. multicinctus antivenom (60 U/mL), or Australian polyvalent snake antivenom (50 U/mL), at the t90 time point after the addition of B. multicinctus venom (3 μg/mL), did not restore the twitch height over 180 min. The earlier addition of B. multicinctus antivenom (60 U/mL), at the t20 or t50 time points, also failed to prevent the neurotoxic effects of the venom but did delay the time to abolish twitches based on a comparison of t90 values. Repeated washing of the preparation with physiological salt solution, commencing at the t20 time point, failed to reverse the neurotoxic effects of venom or delay the time to abolish twitches. This study showed that B. multicinctus venom displays marked in vitro neurotoxicity in a skeletal muscle preparation which is not reversed by antivenom. This does not appear to be related to antivenom efficacy, but due to the irreversible/pseudo-irreversible nature of the neurotoxins.
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Tillis SB, Iredale ME, Childress AL, Graham EA, Wellehan JFX, Isaza R, Ossiboff RJ. Oral, Cloacal, and Hemipenal Actinomycosis in Captive Ball Pythons (Python regius). Front Vet Sci 2021; 7:594600. [PMID: 33490131 PMCID: PMC7820239 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.594600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ball pythons (Python regius) are one of the most commonly kept and bred reptiles in captivity. In a large ball python breeding colony, a unique syndrome characterized by granulomatous inflammation of the cloaca and hemipenes (phalli) was observed in 140 of 481 (29.1%) breeding males, but only one of 1,446 breeding females. Lesions were absent in virgin males (n = 201) and virgin females (n = 293). On postmortem examination (n = 13, 12 males, 1 female), numerous well-defined mucosal and submucosal granulomas were present in the hemipenes (males) and cloaca (males and female). Extension into the coelomic cavity and liver was noted in a subset of these animals. An additional small subset of breeder animals (6/2027; 0.3%) presented with oral and mandibular swellings. Postmortem examination (n = 4, all female) showed oral lesions histologically indistinguishable from the cloacal/hemipenal lesions. Aerobic bacterial culture of a hepatic granuloma of one snake resulted in the isolation of filamentous, Gram-positive bacilli; amplification, and sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene and subsequent phylogenetic analysis of the isolate identified the bacterium as a novel species of Actinomyces. Screening of cloacal and oral granulomas using a specific, heminested 16S rRNA PCR assay confirmed the presence of the agent in all 17 snakes, as well as in cloacal swabs taken at the time of necropsy in 11/13 snakes. The Actinomyces sp. was also identified by PCR of cloacal swabs of unaffected snakes (n = 94) from the affected colony and two unrelated, grossly unaffected breeding colonies. In the affected colony, 65.5% of breeding animals (n = 23) but only 11.9% of virgin animals (n = 42) tested PCR positive, with breeding status being a significant predictor of bacterium presence (P < 0.00001). This study characterizes a granulomatous mucosal disease syndrome of breeding male ball pythons associated with a novel Actinomyces. In stark contrast to male snakes, the presence of the bacterium in both breeding and virgin females was very rarely associated with clinical disease. Though additional studies are necessary, these data suggest a role for the novel bacterium in the disease process, a predilection for clinical disease in male snakes, and the potential for sexual transmission of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven B Tillis
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Marley E Iredale
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - April L Childress
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Erin A Graham
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - James F X Wellehan
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Ramiro Isaza
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Robert J Ossiboff
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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Landry Yuan F, Ito S, Tsang TPN, Kuriyama T, Yamasaki K, Bonebrake TC, Hasegawa M. Predator presence and recent climatic warming raise body temperatures of island lizards. Ecol Lett 2021; 24:533-542. [PMID: 33404198 DOI: 10.1111/ele.13671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In ectothermic predator-prey relationships, evasion of predation by prey depends on physiological and behavioural responses relating to the thermal biology of both predator and prey. On Japan's Izu Islands, we investigated a prey lizard's physiological and thermal responses to the presence of a snake predator over geologic time in addition to recent climatic warming. Foraging lizard body temperatures increased by 1.3 °C from 1981 to 2019 overall, yet were 2.9 °C warmer on snake islands relative to snake-free islands. We also detected snake predator-induced selection on hind leg length, which in turn is a major determinant for sprint speed only in lizard populations exposed to predation by snakes. Accordingly, we found that warmer prey body temperatures result in faster sprint speeds by the prey at temperatures suboptimal for the snake predator, and therefore contribute to escaping predation. Given recent climatic change, further warming could irrevocably alter this and other ectothermic predator-prey relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Landry Yuan
- Division of Ecology & Biodiversity, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Shun Ito
- Graduate School of Life Science, Tohoku University, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Japan
| | - Toby P N Tsang
- Division of Ecology & Biodiversity, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Takeo Kuriyama
- Institute of Natural and Environmental Sciences, University of Hyogo, Tamba, Japan
| | - Kaede Yamasaki
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, Japan
| | - Timothy C Bonebrake
- Division of Ecology & Biodiversity, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Masami Hasegawa
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, Japan
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65
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Duff SM, Bowman A, Blake CR. Coluber Constrictor Bite to the Eye: A Novel Case Report of a Wild Snake Bite to the Eye in North America and Review of Literature. Cureus 2020; 12:e12125. [PMID: 33489539 PMCID: PMC7810177 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.12125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake bites involving the eye are an uncommon cause of ocular trauma; herein, we present one of the few known instances of a snake bite directly to the globe, specifically by the way of a Coluber constrictor, also known as the “Black Racer.” In this case report, we describe a nine-year-old girl who presented immediately following a snake bite to the right eye. The patient’s vision was unaffected despite visualized puncture wounds through the conjunctiva with associated near-total subconjunctival hemorrhage. The patient was taken to the operating room emergently for globe exploration. Circumferential peritomy and direct view to the sclera did not reveal any lacerations or puncture and subconjunctival vancomycin, gentamycin, and dexamethasone were administered intraoperatively. Post-operatively, the patient was discharged on a regimen of oral Cephalexin. Throughout multiple follow-ups, she continued to maintain excellent vision without sequelae. Trauma to the globe via snake bite is an exceedingly rare occurrence. Upon literature review, three out of three cases involving venomous snakes resulted in “No Light Perception” vision despite anti-venom. While nonvenomous snake bites may lend a better visual outcome, if not treated properly they may also yield poor final visual potential. Methods of treatment include oral or subconjunctival antibiotic administration with or without a steroid or cycloplegic agent. All reported cases of nonvenomous cases ultimately resulted in excellent visual potential (20/40 or better) and no reports of endophthalmitis. As such, it is evident that identifying the species of snake is of the utmost importance when considering visual prognosis. Due to very few reported incidences of globe trauma via snake bite, there is no mainstay therapy for either the venomous or nonvenomous snake bite variety. Despite this, we encourage careful pursuance of the appropriate therapy on a case-by-case basis, considering operative treatment, antivenom (if necessary), and antibiotic coverage with possible cycloplegia and steroid administration.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew Bowman
- Ophthalmology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
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Bayona-Serrano JD, Viala VL, Rautsaw RM, Schramer TD, Barros-Carvalho GA, Nishiyama MY, Freitas-de-Sousa LA, Moura-da-Silva AM, Parkinson CL, Grazziotin FG, Junqueira-de-Azevedo ILM. Replacement and Parallel Simplification of Nonhomologous Proteinases Maintain Venom Phenotypes in Rear-Fanged Snakes. Mol Biol Evol 2020; 37:3563-3575. [PMID: 32722789 PMCID: PMC8525196 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msaa192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Novel phenotypes are commonly associated with gene duplications and neofunctionalization, less documented are the cases of phenotypic maintenance through the recruitment of novel genes. Proteolysis is the primary toxic character of many snake venoms, and ADAM metalloproteinases, named snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), are largely recognized as the major effectors of this phenotype. However, by investigating original transcriptomes from 58 species of advanced snakes (Caenophidia) across their phylogeny, we discovered that a different enzyme, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP), is actually the dominant venom component in three tribes (Tachymenini, Xenodontini, and Conophiini) of rear-fanged snakes (Dipsadidae). Proteomic and functional analyses of these venoms further indicate that MMPs are likely playing an "SVMP-like" function in the proteolytic phenotype. A detailed look into the venom-specific sequences revealed a new highly expressed MMP subtype, named snake venom MMP (svMMP), which originated independently on at least three occasions from an endogenous MMP-9. We further show that by losing ancillary noncatalytic domains present in its ancestors, svMMPs followed an evolutionary path toward a simplified structure during their expansion in the genomes, thus paralleling what has been proposed for the evolution of their Viperidae counterparts, the SVMPs. Moreover, we inferred an inverse relationship between the expression of svMMPs and SVMPs along the evolutionary history of Xenodontinae, pointing out that one type of enzyme may be substituting for the other, whereas the general (metallo)proteolytic phenotype is maintained. These results provide rare evidence on how relevant phenotypic traits can be optimized via natural selection on nonhomologous genes, yielding alternate biochemical components.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vincent Louis Viala
- Laboratório Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
- Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rhett M Rautsaw
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC
| | | | | | - Milton Yutaka Nishiyama
- Laboratório Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
- Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Ana Maria Moura-da-Silva
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
- Instituto de Pesquisa Clínica Carlos Borborema, Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC
| | | | - Inácio L M Junqueira-de-Azevedo
- Laboratório Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
- Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), São Paulo, Brazil
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Myotoxicity is a recognised but poorly characterised effect of snake envenoming worldwide. We aimed to describe the clinical effects, complications and effectiveness of antivenom in myotoxicity from Australian snake envenoming. METHODS Patients were recruited to the Australian Snakebite Project (ASP), a prospective, observational study of patients with suspected or proven snakebite countrywide. After informed consent data is collected and stored in a dedicated database and blood samples are taken and stored. We included patients with envenoming and biochemical evidence of myotoxicity (peak creatine kinase [CK] > 1000 U/L). Snake species was determined by expert identification or venom specific enzyme immunoassay. Analysis included patient demographics, clinical findings, pathology results, treatment and outcomes (length of hospital stay, complications). RESULTS 1638 patients were recruited January 2003-December 2016, 935 (57%) were envenomed, 148 developed myotoxicity (16%). Snake species most commonly associated with myotoxicity were Notechis spp. (30%), Pseudechis porphyriacus (20%) and Pseudechis australis (13%). Bite site effects occurred in 19 patients. Non-specific systemic symptoms occurred in 135 patients (91%), specific signs and symptoms in 83. In 120 patients with early serial CK results, the median peak CK was 3323 U/L (IQR;1050-785100U/L), the median time to first CK >500 U/L was 11.1 h and median time to peak CK of 34.3 h. White cell count was elevated in 136 patients (93%; median time to elevation, 4.9 h). 37 patients had elevated creatinine, six were dialysed. Two patients died from complications of severe myotoxicity. Antivenom given before the first abnormal CK (>500 U/L) was associated with less severe myotoxicity (2976 versus 7590 U/L). Non-envenomed patients with elevated CK had rapid rise to abnormal CK (median 3.5 h) and less had elevated WCC (32%). CONCLUSION Myotoxicity from Australian snakes is relatively common and has systemic effects, with significant associated morbidity and mortality. CK is not a good early biomarker of mytoxicity. Early antivenom may play a role in reducing severity.
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Kurohmaru M, Matsui T, Igarashi H, Hattori S, Hayashi Y. Postnatal testicular development and actin appearance in the seminiferous epithelium of the Habu, Trimeresurus flavoviridis. Anat Histol Embryol 2020; 50:417-421. [PMID: 33105047 DOI: 10.1111/ahe.12628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2020] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The postnatal testicular development and actin distribution in the seminiferous epithelium were examined by light microscopy, using the testes of the Habu (Trimeresurus flavoviridis; snake) from 0-year-old to 3-year-old. At 0-year-old (about 1 month after birth), the testis was quite small in size, and the seminiferous epithelium was composed of only Sertoli cells and large spermatogonia. Actin immunoreactivity was observed in the peritubular myoid cells, but could not be detected in the seminiferous epithelium. At 1-year-old (about 10 months after birth), the testicular size increased to a great degree. In the seminiferous epithelium, spermatocytes newly appeared. Actin could still not be detected in the seminiferous epithelium. At 2-year-old (about 1 year and 10 months after birth), the testes continued to develop in size. In the seminiferous epithelium, elongate spermatids and round spermatids were frequently seen, in addition to Sertoli cells, spermatogonia and spermatocytes. Thus, active spermatogenesis was clearly recognized at this age. Moreover, the actin distribution in the seminiferous epithelium was observed at the site between Sertoli cells and spermatids, as well as that at adult stage. The immunoreactivity of actin in the peritubular myoid cells gradually increased from 0-year-old to 2-year-old. Conclusively, it seems likely that spermatogenesis in the Habu initiates at 2-year-old, accompanying with the appearance of actin in the seminiferous epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masamichi Kurohmaru
- Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Okayama University of Science, Imabari, Japan.,Department of Veterinary Anatomy, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Toshiyasu Matsui
- Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Okayama University of Science, Imabari, Japan
| | - Hitomi Igarashi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Okayama University of Science, Imabari, Japan
| | - Shosaku Hattori
- Amami Laboratory, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Hayashi
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo, Japan
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Puinongpo W, Singchat W, Petpradub S, Kraichak E, Nunome M, Laopichienpong N, Thongchum R, Intarasorn T, Sillapaprayoon S, Indananda C, Muangmai N, Suntrarachun S, Baicharoen S, Chanhome L, Peyachoknagul S, Srikulnath K. Existence of Bov-B LINE Retrotransposons in Snake Lineages Reveals Recent Multiple Horizontal Gene Transfers with Copy Number Variation. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:E1241. [PMID: 33105659 DOI: 10.3390/genes11111241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Transposable elements (TEs) are dynamic elements present in all eukaryotic genomes. They can “jump” and amplify within the genome and promote segmental genome rearrangements on both autosomes and sex chromosomes by disruption of gene structures. The Bovine-B long interspersed nuclear element (Bov-B LINE) is among the most abundant TE-retrotransposon families in vertebrates due to horizontal transfer (HT) among vertebrate lineages. Recent studies have shown multiple HTs or the presence of diverse Bov-B LINE groups in the snake lineage. It is hypothesized that Bov-B LINEs are highly dynamic and that the diversity reflects multiple HTs in snake lineages. Partial sequences of Bov-B LINE from 23 snake species were characterized. Phylogenetic analysis resolved at least two Bov-B LINE groups that might correspond to henophidian and caenophidian snakes; however, the tree topology differed from that based on functional nuclear and mitochondrial gene sequences. Several Bov-B LINEs of snakes showed greater than 80% similarity to sequences obtained from insects, whereas the two Bov-B LINE groups as well as sequences from the same snake species classified in different Bov-B LINE groups showed sequence similarities of less than 80%. Calculation of estimated divergence time and pairwise divergence between all individual Bov-B LINE copies suggest invasion times ranging from 79.19 to 98.8 million years ago in snakes. Accumulation of elements in a lineage-specific fashion ranged from 9 × 10−6% to 5.63 × 10−2% per genome. The genomic proportion of Bov-B LINEs varied among snake species but was not directly associated with genome size or invasion time. No differentiation in Bov-B LINE copy number between males and females was observed in any of the snake species examined. Incongruence in tree topology between Bov-B LINEs and other snake phylogenies may reflect past HT events. Sequence divergence of Bov-B LINEs between copies suggests that recent multiple HTs occurred within the same evolutionary timeframe in the snake lineage. The proportion of Bov-B LINEs varies among species, reflecting species specificity in TE invasion. The rapid speciation of snakes, coinciding with Bov-B LINE invasion in snake genomes, leads us to better understand the effect of Bov-B LINEs on snake genome evolution.
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70
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Masila NM, Ross KE, Gardner MG, Whiley H. Zoonotic and Public Health Implications of Campylobacter Species and Squamates (Lizards, Snakes and Amphisbaenians). Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9100799. [PMID: 32998205 PMCID: PMC7601876 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9100799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Campylobacter spp. is one of the most widespread infectious diseases of veterinary and public health significance. Globally, the incidence of campylobacteriosis has increased over the last decade in both developing and developed countries. Squamates (lizards, snakes and amphisbaenians) are a potential reservoir and source of transmission of campylobacteriosis to humans. This systematic review examined studies from the last 20 years that have reported squamate-associated human campylobacteriosis. It was found that C. fetus subsp. testudinum and C. fetus subsp. fetus were the most common species responsible for human campylobacteriosis from a squamate host. The common squamate hosts identified included bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps), green iguana (Iguana iguana), western beaked gecko (Rhynchoedura ornate) and blotched blue-tongued skink (Tiliqua nigrolutea). People with underlying chronic illnesses, the immunocompromised and the elderly were identified as the most vulnerable population. Exposure to pet squamates, wild animals, consumption of reptilian cuisines and cross contamination with untreated water were risk factors associated with Campylobacter infections. Proper hand hygiene practices, responsible pet ownership, ‘One Health’ education and awareness on zoonotic diseases will help reduce the public health risks arising from Campylobacter exposure through squamates. Continued surveillance using molecular diagnostic methods will also enhance detection and response to squamate-linked campylobacteriosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicodemus M Masila
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
- Kenya Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Council (KENTTEC), P.O. BOX 66290, Westlands, Nairobi 00800, Kenya
| | - Kirstin E Ross
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
| | - Michael G Gardner
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
- Evolutionary Biology Unit, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Harriet Whiley
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
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Liang Q, Huynh TM, Konstantakopoulos N, Isbister GK, Hodgson WC. An Examination of the Neutralization of In Vitro Toxicity of Chinese Cobra ( Naja atra) Venom by Different Antivenoms. Biomedicines 2020; 8:biomedicines8100377. [PMID: 32992934 PMCID: PMC7599741 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8100377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The Chinese Cobra (Naja atra) is an elapid snake of major medical importance in southern China. We describe the in vitro neurotoxic, myotoxic, and cytotoxic effects of N. atra venom, as well as examining the efficacy of three Chinese monovalent antivenoms (N. atra antivenom, Gloydius brevicaudus antivenom and Deinagkistrodon acutus antivenom) and an Australian polyvalent snake antivenom. In the chick biventer cervicis nerve-muscle preparation, N. atra venom (1–10 µg/mL) abolished indirect twitches in a concentration-dependent manner, as well as abolishing contractile responses to exogenous acetylcholine chloride (ACh) and carbamylcholine chloride (CCh), indicative of post-synaptic neurotoxicity. Contractile responses to potassium chloride (KCl) were also significantly inhibited by venom indicating myotoxicity. The prior addition of Chinese N. atra antivenom (0.75 U/mL) or Australian polyvalent snake antivenom (3 U/mL), markedly attenuated the neurotoxic actions of venom (3 µg/mL) and prevented the inhibition of contractile responses to ACh, CCh, and KCl. The addition of Chinese antivenom (0.75 U/mL) or Australian polyvalent antivenom (3 U/mL) at the t90 time point after the addition of venom (3 µg/mL), partially reversed the inhibition of twitches and significantly reversed the venom-induced inhibition of responses to ACh and CCh, but had no significant effect on the response to KCl. Venom (30 µg/mL) also abolished direct twitches in the chick biventer cervicis nerve-muscle preparation and caused a significant increase in baseline tension, further indicative of myotoxicity. N. atra antivenom (4 U/mL) prevented the myotoxic effects of venom (30 µg/mL). However, G. brevicaudus antivenom (24 U/mL), D. acutus antivenom (8 U/mL) and Australian polyvalent snake antivenom (33 U/mL) were unable to prevent venom (30 µg/mL) induced myotoxicity. In the L6 rat skeletal muscle myoblast cell line, N. atra venom caused concentration-dependent inhibition of cell viability, with a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 2.8 ± 0.48 μg/mL. N. atra antivenom significantly attenuated the cytotoxic effect of the venom, whereas Australian polyvalent snake antivenom was less effective but still attenuated the cytotoxic effects at lower venom concentrations. Neither G. brevicaudus antivenom or D. acutus antivenom were able to prevent the cytotoxicity. This study indicates that Chinese N. atra monovalent antivenom is efficacious against the neurotoxic, myotoxic and cytotoxic effects of N. atra venom but the clinical effectiveness of the antivenom is likely to be diminished, even if given early after envenoming. The use of Chinese viper antivenoms (i.e., G. brevicaudus and D. acutus antivenoms) in cases of envenoming by the Chinese cobra is not supported by the results of the current study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Liang
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Biomedical Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Australia; (Q.L.); (T.M.H.); (N.K.); (G.K.I.)
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, 151 Yanjiang Rd, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Tam Minh Huynh
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Biomedical Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Australia; (Q.L.); (T.M.H.); (N.K.); (G.K.I.)
| | - Nicki Konstantakopoulos
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Biomedical Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Australia; (Q.L.); (T.M.H.); (N.K.); (G.K.I.)
| | - Geoffrey K. Isbister
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Biomedical Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Australia; (Q.L.); (T.M.H.); (N.K.); (G.K.I.)
- Clinical Toxicology Research Group, University of Newcastle, Callaghan 2308, Australia
| | - Wayne C. Hodgson
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Biomedical Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Australia; (Q.L.); (T.M.H.); (N.K.); (G.K.I.)
- Correspondence:
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72
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Wu Y, Li K, Liu Q, Chen S, Cai B. The complete mitochondrial genome of the Asian pitviper Gloydius changdaoensis (Squamata, Viperidae). Mitochondrial DNA B Resour 2020; 5:3276-3277. [PMID: 33458138 PMCID: PMC7782340 DOI: 10.1080/23802359.2020.1810154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Asian pitviper Gloydius changdaoensis is a coastal species, distributed in Shandong province, China. In this study, we successfully sequenced the mitochondrial genome of one individual of G. changdaoensis. The complete mitochondrial genome is circular molecular with 17,224 bp, containing an origin of light-strand replication (OL), two non-coding control regions (CRs), and 37 classical genes of vertebrate, which contain 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 2 ribosomal RNA genes, and 22 transfer RNA genes. A Bayesian phylogenetic tree using the complete mitochondrial genomes of all viper species available showed a consistent result with previous studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yayong Wu
- College of Life Science, Yibin University, Yibin, China
| | - Ke Li
- College of Life Science, Yibin University, Yibin, China.,Food Engineering, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, China
| | - Qin Liu
- College of Life Science, Yibin University, Yibin, China
| | - Shanshan Chen
- Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Bo Cai
- Museum of Herpetology, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, China
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73
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Jensen GW, van der Smagt P, Heiss E, Straka H, Kohl T. SnakeStrike: A Low-Cost Open-Source High-Speed Multi-Camera Motion Capture System. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:116. [PMID: 32848652 PMCID: PMC7416652 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Current neuroethological experiments require sophisticated technologies to precisely quantify the behavior of animals. In many studies, solutions for video recording and subsequent tracking of animal behavior form a major bottleneck. Three-dimensional (3D) tracking systems have been available for a few years but are usually very expensive and rarely include very high-speed cameras; access to these systems for research is limited. Additionally, establishing custom-built software is often time consuming – especially for researchers without high-performance programming and computer vision expertise. Here, we present an open-source software framework that allows researchers to utilize low-cost high-speed cameras in their research for a fraction of the cost of commercial systems. This software handles the recording of synchronized high-speed video from multiple cameras, the offline 3D reconstruction of that video, and a viewer for the triangulated data, all functions previously also available as separate applications. It supports researchers with a performance-optimized suite of functions that encompass the entirety of data collection and decreases processing time for high-speed 3D position tracking on a variety of animals, including snakes. Motion capture in snakes can be particularly demanding since a strike can be as short as 50 ms, literally twice as fast as the blink of an eye. This is too fast for faithful recording by most commercial tracking systems and therefore represents a challenging test to our software for quantification of animal behavior. Therefore, we conducted a case study investigating snake strike speed to showcase the use and integration of the software in an existing experimental setup.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grady W Jensen
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences (GSN-LMU), Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,argmax.ai, Volkswagen Group Machine Learning Research Lab, Munich, Germany
| | - Patrick van der Smagt
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences (GSN-LMU), Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,argmax.ai, Volkswagen Group Machine Learning Research Lab, Munich, Germany.,Department of Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Informatics, Eötvös Lórand University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Egon Heiss
- Institute of Zoology and Evolutionary Research, Friedrich-Schiller-University of Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Hans Straka
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences (GSN-LMU), Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,Department Biology II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Tobias Kohl
- Chair of Zoology, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
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74
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Moon JM, Koo YJ, Chun BJ, Park KH, Cho YS, Kim JC, Lee SD, Min YR, Park HS. The effect of myocardial injury on the clinical course of snake envenomation in South Korea. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2020; 59:286-295. [PMID: 32840397 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2020.1802473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
CONTENT This study investigated the incidence, progression and clinical course of myocardial injury-related snake envenomation in South Korea. In addition, this study evaluated whether antivenom guidelines are appropriate to control envenomation in patients with myocardial injury. METHODS The study included 198 patients who received antivenom after a snakebite, and they were divided into two groups according to evidence of myocardial injury (defined as elevated troponin I or ischemic change on electrocardiogram) at presentation. Data including serial troponin I, echocardiogram/coronary angiogram findings, the clinical course, and treatment were collected and analyzed. RESULTS The incidence of myocardial injury at presentation was 15.2%. The troponin I level was 0.11 (0.07-0.56) ng/ml at presentation and tended to decrease over 24 h. Echocardiograms revealed neither regional wall motion abnormalities nor left ventricular dysfunction in 15 of 17 patients, while two patients showed signs of coronary artery stenosis on echocardiograms and coronary angiograms. However, compared with patients without myocardial injury, patients with myocardial injury had a higher frequency of systemic envenomation complications, including bleeding, respiratory failure, hypotension, acute kidney injury, thrombocytopenia and venom-induced consumption coagulopathy (VICC). The patients with myocardial injury at presentation needed significantly more frequent and larger doses of antivenom than indicated by the initial severity of envenomation. Multivariate analysis showed that myocardial injury was associated with the need for additional antivenom administration after initial administration. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Myocardial injury is not uncommon after snake envenomation in Korea. Although myocardial injury itself seems to be benign, the clinical course of patients with myocardial injury is complicated, and myocardial injury is associated with the need for additional antivenom administration. The optimal use of antivenom to control envenomation in patents with myocardial injury after snake envenomation in South Korea should be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Moon
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea.,Department of Emergency Medicine, Chonnam National University Hwasun Hospital, Jeollanam-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Y J Koo
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - B J Chun
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea.,Department of Emergency Medicine, Chonnam National University Hospital, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - K H Park
- Department of Emergency Medical Rescue, Nambu University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea.,Department of Medical science, Chonnam National University Graduate School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Y S Cho
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Chonnam National University Hospital, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - J C Kim
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Chonnam National University Hospital, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - S D Lee
- Department of Emergency Medicine in Trauma Center, Wonkwang University Hospital, Iksan, Republic of Korea
| | - Y R Min
- Department of Medical science, Chonnam National University Graduate School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - H S Park
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
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75
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Michaely LM, von Dörnberg K, Molnár V, Tappe D, Tannich E, Hewicker-Trautwein M, Wohlsein P. Entamoeba ranarum Infection in a Ball Python (Python regius). J Comp Pathol 2020; 179:74-8. [PMID: 32958152 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2020.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenic Entamoeba species in snakes is widely regarded to be Entamoeba invadens, which can cause severe amoebiasis with up to 100% mortality. In this case report, we describe a ball python (Python regius) that died after short-term weight loss. Necropsy revealed severe necrotizing colitis with large numbers of intralesional Entamoeba trophozoites. Molecular genetic analysis identified these trophozoites as Entamoeba ranarum, a parasite more usually found in amphibians. Furthermore, the extended history revealed that toads (Rhinella marina) had been housed together with the python. This report illustrates the danger of protozoal cross-infections in exotic animals as well as the importance of molecular genetic tools in Entamoeba diagnosis.
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76
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Singchat W, Ahmad SF, Sillapaprayoon S, Muangmai N, Duengkae P, Peyachoknagul S, O’Connor RE, Griffin DK, Srikulnath K. Partial Amniote Sex Chromosomal Linkage Homologies Shared on Snake W Sex Chromosomes Support the Ancestral Super-Sex Chromosome Evolution in Amniotes. Front Genet 2020; 11:948. [PMID: 33014016 PMCID: PMC7461878 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2020.00948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Squamate reptile chromosome 2 (SR2) is thought to be an important remnant of an ancestral amniote super-sex chromosome, but a recent study showed that the Siamese cobra W sex chromosome is also a part of this larger ancestral chromosome. To confirm the existence of an ancestral amniote super-sex chromosome and understand the mechanisms of amniote sex chromosome evolution, chromosome maps of two snake species [Russell's viper: Daboia russelii (DRU) and the common tiger snake: Notechis scutatus (NSC)] were constructed using bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) derived from chicken and zebra finch libraries containing amniote sex chromosomal linkages. Sixteen BACs were mapped on the W sex chromosome of DRU and/or NSC, suggesting that these BACs contained a common genomic region shared with the W sex chromosome of these snakes. Two of the sixteen BACs were co-localized to DRU2 and NSC2, corresponding to SR2. Prediction of genomic content from all BACs mapped on snake W sex chromosomes revealed a large proportion of long interspersed nuclear element (LINE) and short interspersed nuclear element (SINE) retrotransposons. These results led us to predict that amplification of LINE and SINE may have occurred on snake W chromosomes during evolution. Genome compartmentalization, such as transposon amplification, might be the key factor influencing chromosome structure and differentiation. Multiple sequence alignments of all BACs mapped on snake W sex chromosomes did not reveal common sequences. Our findings indicate that the SR2 and snake W sex chromosomes may have been part of a larger ancestral amniote super-sex chromosome, and support the view of sex chromosome evolution as a colorful myriad of situations and trajectories in which many diverse processes are in action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Worapong Singchat
- Laboratory of Animal Cytogenetics and Comparative Genomics (ACCG), Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Special Research Unit for Wildlife Genomics (SRUWG), Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Syed Farhan Ahmad
- Laboratory of Animal Cytogenetics and Comparative Genomics (ACCG), Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Special Research Unit for Wildlife Genomics (SRUWG), Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Siwapech Sillapaprayoon
- Laboratory of Animal Cytogenetics and Comparative Genomics (ACCG), Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Special Research Unit for Wildlife Genomics (SRUWG), Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Narongrit Muangmai
- Department of Fishery Biology, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Prateep Duengkae
- Special Research Unit for Wildlife Genomics (SRUWG), Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Surin Peyachoknagul
- Laboratory of Animal Cytogenetics and Comparative Genomics (ACCG), Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Darren K. Griffin
- School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom
| | - Kornsorn Srikulnath
- Laboratory of Animal Cytogenetics and Comparative Genomics (ACCG), Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Special Research Unit for Wildlife Genomics (SRUWG), Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center for Advanced Studies in Tropical Natural Resources, National Research University-Kasetsart University, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence on Agricultural Biotechnology (AG-BIO/PERDO-CHE), Bangkok, Thailand
- Omics Center for Agriculture, Bioresources, Food and Health, Kasetsart University (OmiKU), Bangkok, Thailand
- Amphibian Research Center, Hiroshima University, Higashihiroshima, Japan
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Chen K, Keating S, Strahl-Heldreth D, Clark-Price S. Effects of intracoelomic alfaxalone-dexmedetomidine on righting reflex in common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis): preliminary data. Vet Anaesth Analg 2020; 47:793-796. [PMID: 32921576 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2020.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effect of dexmedetomidine on alfaxalone immobilization in snakes. STUDY DESIGN Nonblinded, crossover study. ANIMALS A total of eight mature common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis). METHODS Snakes were administered each of three treatments intracoelomically: alfaxalone (30 mg kg-1; treatment A), alfaxalone (30 mg kg-1) combined with dexmedetomidine (0.05 mg kg-1; treatment AD0.05); and alfaxalone (30 mg kg-1) combined with dexmedetomidine (0.10 mg kg-1; treatment AD0.10). A minimum of 10 days elapsed between experimental trials. Times to loss of righting reflex (LRR) and return of righting reflex (RRR) were recorded. Heart rate (HR) was recorded every 5 minutes throughout the period of LRR and averaged for each snake. Times to LRR and RRR, and mean HR in snakes that achieved LRR were reported. RESULTS LRR occurred in eight (100%), five (63%) and three (38%) snakes in treatments A, AD0.05 and AD0.10, respectively. For all treatments, time to LRR ranged 3-20 minutes. Median (range) times to RRR were 39 (30-46), 89 (62-128) and 77 (30-185) minutes for treatments A, AD0.05 and AD0.10, respectively. In animals where righting reflex was lost, mean HR was lower in all dexmedetomidine treatments compared with treatment A. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE In this pilot study, alfaxalone resulted in reliable immobilization, whereas dexmedetomidine and alfaxalone combinations resulted in highly variable durations of immobilization with low HR in immobilized animals. For snakes that achieved LRR, the addition of dexmedetomidine (0.05 mg kg-1) to alfaxalone appeared to extend the period of immobilization compared with alfaxalone alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Chen
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Stephanie Keating
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA.
| | - Danielle Strahl-Heldreth
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Stuart Clark-Price
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
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Bordon KDCF, Cologna CT, Fornari-Baldo EC, Pinheiro-Júnior EL, Cerni FA, Amorim FG, Anjolette FAP, Cordeiro FA, Wiezel GA, Cardoso IA, Ferreira IG, de Oliveira IS, Boldrini-França J, Pucca MB, Baldo MA, Arantes EC. From Animal Poisons and Venoms to Medicines: Achievements, Challenges and Perspectives in Drug Discovery. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:1132. [PMID: 32848750 PMCID: PMC7396678 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.01132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal poisons and venoms are comprised of different classes of molecules displaying wide-ranging pharmacological activities. This review aims to provide an in-depth view of toxin-based compounds from terrestrial and marine organisms used as diagnostic tools, experimental molecules to validate postulated therapeutic targets, drug libraries, prototypes for the design of drugs, cosmeceuticals, and therapeutic agents. However, making these molecules applicable requires extensive preclinical trials, with some applications also demanding clinical trials, in order to validate their molecular target, mechanism of action, effective dose, potential adverse effects, as well as other fundamental parameters. Here we go through the pitfalls for a toxin-based potential therapeutic drug to become eligible for clinical trials and marketing. The manuscript also presents an overview of the current picture for several molecules from different animal venoms and poisons (such as those from amphibians, cone snails, hymenopterans, scorpions, sea anemones, snakes, spiders, tetraodontiformes, bats, and shrews) that have been used in clinical trials. Advances and perspectives on the therapeutic potential of molecules from other underexploited animals, such as caterpillars and ticks, are also reported. The challenges faced during the lengthy and costly preclinical and clinical studies and how to overcome these hindrances are also discussed for that drug candidates going to the bedside. It covers most of the drugs developed using toxins, the molecules that have failed and those that are currently in clinical trials. The article presents a detailed overview of toxins that have been used as therapeutic agents, including their discovery, formulation, dosage, indications, main adverse effects, and pregnancy and breastfeeding prescription warnings. Toxins in diagnosis, as well as cosmeceuticals and atypical therapies (bee venom and leech therapies) are also reported. The level of cumulative and detailed information provided in this review may help pharmacists, physicians, biotechnologists, pharmacologists, and scientists interested in toxinology, drug discovery, and development of toxin-based products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karla de Castro Figueiredo Bordon
- Laboratory of Animal Toxins, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Camila Takeno Cologna
- Laboratory of Animal Toxins, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | | | - Ernesto Lopes Pinheiro-Júnior
- Laboratory of Animal Toxins, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Felipe Augusto Cerni
- Laboratory of Animal Toxins, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Gobbi Amorim
- Postgraduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vila Velha University, Vila Velha, Brazil
| | | | - Francielle Almeida Cordeiro
- Laboratory of Animal Toxins, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Gisele Adriano Wiezel
- Laboratory of Animal Toxins, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Iara Aimê Cardoso
- Laboratory of Animal Toxins, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Isabela Gobbo Ferreira
- Laboratory of Animal Toxins, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Isadora Sousa de Oliveira
- Laboratory of Animal Toxins, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | | | | | - Mateus Amaral Baldo
- Health and Science Institute, Paulista University, São José do Rio Pardo, Brazil
| | - Eliane Candiani Arantes
- Laboratory of Animal Toxins, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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79
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Kryukova EV, Vulfius CA, Ziganshin RH, Andreeva TV, Starkov VG, Tsetlin VI, Utkin YN. Snake C-type lectin-like proteins inhibit nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. J Venom Res 2020; 10:23-29. [PMID: 33024544 PMCID: PMC7512478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Venoms of viperid snakes affect mostly hemostasis, while C-type lectin-like proteins (CTLPs), one of the main components of viperid venoms, act as anticoagulants, procoagulants, or agonists/antagonists of platelet activation. However, we have shown earlier that CTLPs from the saw-scaled viper Echis multisquamatus, called emunarecins EM1 and EM2, were able to inhibit nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in neurons of a pond snail (Lymnaea stagnalis). Here we analysed the structure of the emunarecins by mass spectrometry and report that EM1 and EM2 inhibit fluorescent α-bungarotoxin binding to both muscle-type nAChRs from Torpedo californica and human neuronal α7 nAChRs. EM1 at 23µM and EM2 at 9µM almost completely prevented fluorecsent α-bungarotoxin binding to muscle-type nAChRs. Interaction with human neuronal α7 nAChR was weaker; EM1 at the concentration of 23µM blocked the α-bungarotoxin binding only by about 40% and EM2 at 9µM by about 20%. The efficiency of the EM2 interaction with nAChRs was comparable to that of a non-conventional toxin, WTX, from Naja kaouthia cobra venom. Together with the data obtained earlier, these results show that CTLPs may represent new nAChR ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena V Kryukova
- 1Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Catherine A Vulfius
- 2Institute of Cell Biophysics Russian Academy of Sciences, 3 Institutskaya Street, Pushchino Moscow region, 142290, Russia
| | - Rustam H Ziganshin
- 1Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Tatyana V Andreeva
- 1Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Vladislav G Starkov
- 1Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Victor I Tsetlin
- 1Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Yuri N Utkin
- 1Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia,*Correspondence to: Yuri Utkin, E-mail: ; , Tel/Fax: +74953366522
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80
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Schmidt DA, Govindarajulu P, Larsen KW, Russello MA. Genotyping-in-Thousands by sequencing reveals marked population structure in Western Rattle snakes to inform conservation status. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:7157-7172. [PMID: 32760519 PMCID: PMC7391313 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Delineation of units below the species level is critical for prioritizing conservation actions for species at-risk. Genetic studies play an important role in characterizing patterns of population connectivity and diversity to inform the designation of conservation units, especially for populations that are geographically isolated. The northernmost range margin of Western Rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus) occurs in British Columbia, Canada, where it is federally classified as threatened and restricted to five geographic regions. In these areas, Western Rattlesnakes hibernate (den) communally, raising questions about connectivity within and between den complexes. At present, Western Rattlesnake conservation efforts are hindered by a complete lack of information on genetic structure and degree of isolation at multiple scales, from the den to the regional level. To fill this knowledge gap, we used Genotyping-in-Thousands by sequencing (GT-seq) to genotype an optimized panel of 362 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from individual samples (n = 461) collected across the snake's distribution in western Canada and neighboring Washington (USA). Hierarchical STRUCTURE analyses found evidence for population structure within and among the five geographic regions in BC, as well as in Washington. Within these regions, 11 genetically distinct complexes of dens were identified, with some regions having multiple complexes. No significant pattern of isolation-by-distance and generally low levels of migration were detected among den complexes across regions. Additionally, snakes within dens generally were more related than those among den complexes within a region, indicating limited movement. Overall, our results suggest that the single, recognized designatable unit for Western Rattlesnakes in Canada should be re-assessed to proactively focus conservation efforts on preserving total genetic variation detected range-wide. More broadly, our study demonstrates a novel application of GT-seq for investigating patterns of diversity in wild populations at multiple scales to better inform conservation management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle A. Schmidt
- Department of BiologyUniversity of British ColumbiaOkanagan CampusKelownaBCCanada
| | - Purnima Govindarajulu
- British Columbia Ministry of Environment and Climate Change StrategyVictoriaBCCanada
| | - Karl W. Larsen
- Department of Natural Resource SciencesThompson Rivers UniversityKamloopsBCCanada
| | - Michael A. Russello
- Department of BiologyUniversity of British ColumbiaOkanagan CampusKelownaBCCanada
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81
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Segall M, Cornette R, Godoy‐Diana R, Herrel A. Exploring the functional meaning of head shape disparity in aquatic snakes. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:6993-7005. [PMID: 32760507 PMCID: PMC7391336 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenotypic diversity, or disparity, can be explained by simple genetic drift or, if functional constraints are strong, by selection for ecologically relevant phenotypes. We here studied phenotypic disparity in head shape in aquatic snakes. We investigated whether conflicting selective pressures related to different functions have driven shape diversity and explore whether similar phenotypes may give rise to the same functional output (i.e., many-to-one mapping of form to function). We focused on the head shape of aquatically foraging snakes as they fulfill several fitness-relevant functions and show a large amount of morphological variability. We used 3D surface scanning and 3D geometric morphometrics to compare the head shape of 62 species in a phylogenetic context. We first tested whether diet specialization and size are drivers of head shape diversification. Next, we tested for many-to-one mapping by comparing the hydrodynamic efficiency of head shape characteristic of the main axes of variation in the dataset. We 3D printed these shapes and measured the forces at play during a frontal strike. Our results show that diet and size explain only a small amount of shape variation. Shapes did not fully functionally converge as more specialized aquatic species evolved a more efficient head shape than others. The shape disparity observed could thus reflect a process of niche specialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Segall
- Department of HerpetologyAmerican Museum of Natural HistoryNew YorkNYUSA
- UMR CNRS/MNHN 7179Mécanismes adaptatifs et EvolutionParisFrance
- Laboratoire de Physique et Mécanique des Milieux Hétérogènes (PMMHUMR 7636)CNRSESPCI Paris–PSL Research UniversityUniversité Paris DiderotSorbonne UniversitéParisFrance
| | | | - Ramiro Godoy‐Diana
- Laboratoire de Physique et Mécanique des Milieux Hétérogènes (PMMHUMR 7636)CNRSESPCI Paris–PSL Research UniversityUniversité Paris DiderotSorbonne UniversitéParisFrance
| | - Anthony Herrel
- UMR CNRS/MNHN 7179Mécanismes adaptatifs et EvolutionParisFrance
- Evolutionary Morphology of VertebratesGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
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82
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Schiebel PE, Astley HC, Rieser JM, Agarwal S, Hubicki C, Hubbard AM, Diaz K, Mendelson III JR, Kamrin K, Goldman DI. Mitigating memory effects during undulatory locomotion on hysteretic materials. eLife 2020; 9:e51412. [PMID: 32578532 PMCID: PMC7314545 DOI: 10.7554/elife.51412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
While terrestrial locomotors often contend with permanently deformable substrates like sand, soil, and mud, principles of motion on such materials are lacking. We study the desert-specialist shovel-nosed snake traversing a model sand and find body inertia is negligible despite rapid transit and speed dependent granular reaction forces. New surface resistive force theory (RFT) calculation reveals how wave shape in these snakes minimizes material memory effects and optimizes escape performance given physiological power limitations. RFT explains the morphology and waveform-dependent performance of a diversity of non-sand-specialist snakes but overestimates the capability of those snakes which suffer high lateral slipping of the body. Robophysical experiments recapitulate aspects of these failure-prone snakes and elucidate how re-encountering previously deformed material hinders performance. This study reveals how memory effects stymied the locomotion of a diversity of snakes in our previous studies (Marvi et al., 2014) and indicates avenues to improve all-terrain robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Perrin E Schiebel
- Department of Physics, Georgia Institute of TechnologyAtlantaUnited States
| | - Henry C Astley
- Department of Physics, Georgia Institute of TechnologyAtlantaUnited States
- Biology and the Department of Polymer Science, University of AkronAkronUnited States
| | - Jennifer M Rieser
- Department of Physics, Georgia Institute of TechnologyAtlantaUnited States
| | - Shashank Agarwal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Christian Hubicki
- Department of Physics, Georgia Institute of TechnologyAtlantaUnited States
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Florida A&M University-Florida State UniversityTallahasseeUnited States
| | - Alex M Hubbard
- Department of Physics, Georgia Institute of TechnologyAtlantaUnited States
| | - Kelimar Diaz
- Department of Physics, Georgia Institute of TechnologyAtlantaUnited States
| | - Joseph R Mendelson III
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of TechnologyAtlantaUnited States
- Zoo AtlantaAtlantaUnited States
| | - Ken Kamrin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Florida A&M University-Florida State UniversityTallahasseeUnited States
| | - Daniel I Goldman
- Department of Physics, Georgia Institute of TechnologyAtlantaUnited States
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83
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Post Y, Puschhof J, Beumer J, Kerkkamp HM, de Bakker MAG, Slagboom J, de Barbanson B, Wevers NR, Spijkers XM, Olivier T, Kazandjian TD, Ainsworth S, Iglesias CL, van de Wetering WJ, Heinz MC, van Ineveld RL, van Kleef RGDM, Begthel H, Korving J, Bar-Ephraim YE, Getreuer W, Rios AC, Westerink RHS, Snippert HJG, van Oudenaarden A, Peters PJ, Vonk FJ, Kool J, Richardson MK, Casewell NR, Clevers H. Snake Venom Gland Organoids. Cell 2020; 180:233-247.e21. [PMID: 31978343 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2019.11.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Wnt dependency and Lgr5 expression define multiple mammalian epithelial stem cell types. Under defined growth factor conditions, such adult stem cells (ASCs) grow as 3D organoids that recapitulate essential features of the pertinent epithelium. Here, we establish long-term expanding venom gland organoids from several snake species. The newly assembled transcriptome of the Cape coral snake reveals that organoids express high levels of toxin transcripts. Single-cell RNA sequencing of both organoids and primary tissue identifies distinct venom-expressing cell types as well as proliferative cells expressing homologs of known mammalian stem cell markers. A hard-wired regional heterogeneity in the expression of individual venom components is maintained in organoid cultures. Harvested venom peptides reflect crude venom composition and display biological activity. This study extends organoid technology to reptilian tissues and describes an experimentally tractable model system representing the snake venom gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yorick Post
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and UMC Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Jens Puschhof
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and UMC Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Joep Beumer
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and UMC Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Harald M Kerkkamp
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, the Netherlands; Institute of Biology Leiden, Department of Animal Science and Health, 2333 BE Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Merijn A G de Bakker
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Department of Animal Science and Health, 2333 BE Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Julien Slagboom
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 LA Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Buys de Barbanson
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and UMC Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Nienke R Wevers
- Mimetas BV, Organ-on-a-Chip Company, 2333 CH Leiden, the Netherlands; Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Einthovenweg 20, 2333 ZC Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Xandor M Spijkers
- Mimetas BV, Organ-on-a-Chip Company, 2333 CH Leiden, the Netherlands; Department of Translational Neuroscience, Utrecht University Medical Center, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas Olivier
- Mimetas BV, Organ-on-a-Chip Company, 2333 CH Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Taline D Kazandjian
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Stuart Ainsworth
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Carmen Lopez Iglesias
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Willine J van de Wetering
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and UMC Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Maria C Heinz
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; Molecular Cancer Research, Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Ravian L van Ineveld
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; The Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584 CS Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Regina G D M van Kleef
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Division of Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Harry Begthel
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and UMC Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Korving
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and UMC Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Yotam E Bar-Ephraim
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and UMC Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | | | - Anne C Rios
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; The Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584 CS Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Remco H S Westerink
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Division of Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Hugo J G Snippert
- Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; Molecular Cancer Research, Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Alexander van Oudenaarden
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and UMC Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Peter J Peters
- The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Freek J Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 LA Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Michael K Richardson
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Department of Animal Science and Health, 2333 BE Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Hans Clevers
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and UMC Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands; The Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584 CS Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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84
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Cleymaet AM, Ehrhart EJ, Sadar MJ, Johnston M, Wotman K, de Linde Henriksen M. Unfolding the diagnosis of subspectacular fluid opacity in a corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus). Vet Ophthalmol 2020; 23:754-759. [PMID: 32468722 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2019] [Revised: 04/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To present the results of clinical, surgical, and histopathologic procedures and how these were compared with the initial presumptive clinical diagnosis in a corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus) presenting with subspectacular fluid opacity; and to improve upon currently established surgical enucleation techniques in the snake. ANIMAL STUDIED An 8-month-old corn snake was presented for enlarged globe OD. PROCEDURES The following diagnostics were performed: systemic and ophthalmic examinations, complete blood count, cytology and culture of subspectacular fluid, and histopathology of enucleated globe and spectacle. Enucleation was performed in a routine fashion with the addition of a porcine small intestinal submucosa bioscaffold graft (SISplus™; Avalon Medical, Stillwater, MN), sutured over the orbit. RESULTS Systemic examination revealed signs of maxillary stomatitis. Ophthalmic examination revealed semitransparent fluid in the subspectacular space. Complete blood count was unremarkable. Cytology of fluid obtained via subspectacular centesis was acellular, and culture grew Clostridium perfringens, which was consistent with the clinical suspicion of right maxillary stomatitis. Histopathology of the enucleated globe revealed spectaculitis, characterized by regional heterophilic inflammation, and no evidence of lymph dissection in the (peri)ocular tissues. The final diagnosis was a subspectacular abscess. Follow-up revealed that the SIS graft provided excellent healing and cosmesis of the surgical site. CONCLUSIONS While there are reports of lymphatic fluid dissection between skin layers during ecdysis, which can result in an opaque spectacle, the fluid opacity in this case was attributed to a subspectacular abscess secondary to an ascending oral infection. Addition of biological wound dressing may contribute to positive post-enucleation outcome in the snake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison M Cleymaet
- Comparative ophthalmology, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - E J Ehrhart
- Microbiology, Immunology & Pathology Department, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.,Ethos Diagnostic Science, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Miranda J Sadar
- Avian, Exotic, and Zoological Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Matthew Johnston
- Avian, Exotic, and Zoological Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Kathryn Wotman
- Comparative ophthalmology, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Michala de Linde Henriksen
- Comparative ophthalmology, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
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85
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Bury S, ZajĄc B. The loss of sexual size dimorphism in urban populations of a widespread reptile, the European grass snake Natrix natrix. Curr Zool 2020; 66:217-218. [PMID: 32440281 PMCID: PMC7233604 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoz034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Stanisław Bury
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, Kraków, 30-387, Poland
| | - Bartłomiej ZajĄc
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, Kraków, 30-387, Poland
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86
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Yacoub T, Rima M, Karam M, Sabatier JM, Fajloun Z. Antimicrobials from Venomous Animals: An Overview. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25102402. [PMID: 32455792 PMCID: PMC7287856 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25102402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The inappropriate or excessive use of antimicrobial agents caused an emerging public health problem due to the resulting resistance developed by microbes. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop effective antimicrobial strategies relying on natural agents with different mechanisms of action. Nature has been known to offer many bioactive compounds, in the form of animal venoms, algae, and plant extracts that were used for decades in traditional medicine. Animal venoms and secretions have been deeply studied for their wealth in pharmaceutically promising molecules. As such, they were reported to exhibit many biological activities of interest, such as antibacterial, antiviral, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory activities. In this review, we summarize recent findings on the antimicrobial activities of crude animal venoms/secretions, and describe the peptides that are responsible of these activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania Yacoub
- Department of Biology, University of Balamand, Kalhat, Al-Kurah, P.O. box 100 Tripoli, Lebanon; (T.Y.); (M.K.)
| | - Mohamad Rima
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), INSERM U964, CNRS U7104, Université de Strasbourg, 67400 Illkirch, France;
| | - Marc Karam
- Department of Biology, University of Balamand, Kalhat, Al-Kurah, P.O. box 100 Tripoli, Lebanon; (T.Y.); (M.K.)
| | - Jean-Marc Sabatier
- Université Aix-Marseille, Institut de NeuroPhysiopathologie, UMR 7051, Faculté de Médecine Secteur Nord, 51, Boulevard Pierre Dramard-CS80011, 13344-Marseille CEDEX 15, France
- Correspondence: (J.-M.S.); (Z.F.)
| | - Ziad Fajloun
- Faculty of Sciences 3, Lebanese University, Michel Slayman Tripoli Campus, Ras Maska 1352, Lebanon
- Laboratory of Applied Biotechnology (LBA3B), Azm Center for Research in Biotechnology and its Applications, Doctoral School for Sciences and Technology, Lebanese University, El Mittein Street, 1300 Tripoli, Lebanon
- Correspondence: (J.-M.S.); (Z.F.)
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87
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Bailon Calderon H, Yaniro Coronel VO, Cáceres Rey OA, Colque Alave EG, Leiva Duran WJ, Padilla Rojas C, Montejo Arevalo H, García Neyra D, Galarza Pérez M, Bonilla C, Tintaya B, Ricciardi G, Smiejkowska N, Romão E, Vincke C, Lévano J, Celys M, Lomonte B, Muyldermans S. Development of Nanobodies Against Hemorrhagic and Myotoxic Components of Bothrops atrox Snake Venom. Front Immunol 2020; 11:655. [PMID: 32457735 PMCID: PMC7224310 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake envenoming is a globally neglected public health problem. Antivenoms produced using animal hyperimmune plasma remain the standard therapy for snakebites. Although effective against systemic effects, conventional antivenoms have limited efficacy against local tissue damage. In addition, potential hypersensitivity reactions, high costs for animal maintenance, and difficulties in obtaining batch-to-batch homogeneity are some of the factors that have motivated the search for innovative and improved therapeutic products against such envenoming. In this study, we have developed a set of nanobodies (recombinant single-domain antigen-binding fragments from camelid heavy chain-only antibodies) against Bothrops atrox snake venom hemorrhagic and myotoxic components. An immune library was constructed after immunizing a Lama glama with whole venom of B. atrox, from which nanobodies were selected by phage display using partially purified hemorrhagic and myotoxic proteins. Biopanning selections retrieved 18 and eight different nanobodies against the hemorrhagic and the myotoxic proteins, respectively. In vivo assays in mice showed that five nanobodies inhibited the hemorrhagic activity of the proteins; three neutralized the hemorrhagic activity of whole B. atrox venom, while four nanobodies inhibited the myotoxic protein. A mixture of the anti-hemorrhagic and anti-myotoxic nanobodies neutralized the local tissue hemorrhage and myonecrosis induced by the whole venom, although the nanobody mixture failed to prevent the venom lethality. Nevertheless, our results demonstrate the efficacy and usefulness of these nanobodies to neutralize important pathologies of the venom, highlighting their potential as innovative therapeutic agents against envenoming by B. atrox, a viperid species causing many casualties in South America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henri Bailon Calderon
- Laboratorio de Referencia Nacional de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, Centro Nacional de Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Lima, Peru
| | - Verónica Olga Yaniro Coronel
- Laboratorio de Referencia Nacional de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, Centro Nacional de Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Lima, Peru.,Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru
| | - Omar Alberto Cáceres Rey
- Laboratorio de Referencia Nacional de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, Centro Nacional de Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Lima, Peru
| | - Elizabeth Gaby Colque Alave
- Laboratorio de Referencia Nacional de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, Centro Nacional de Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Lima, Peru
| | - Walter Jhon Leiva Duran
- Laboratorio de Referencia Nacional de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, Centro Nacional de Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Lima, Peru
| | - Carlos Padilla Rojas
- Laboratorio de Referencia Nacional de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, Centro Nacional de Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Lima, Peru
| | - Harrison Montejo Arevalo
- Laboratorio de Referencia Nacional de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, Centro Nacional de Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Lima, Peru
| | - David García Neyra
- Laboratorio de Referencia Nacional de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, Centro Nacional de Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Lima, Peru
| | - Marco Galarza Pérez
- Laboratorio de Referencia Nacional de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, Centro Nacional de Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Lima, Peru
| | - César Bonilla
- Centro Nacional de Producción de Biológicos (INS), Lima, Peru
| | - Benigno Tintaya
- Centro Nacional de Producción de Biológicos (INS), Lima, Peru
| | - Giulia Ricciardi
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Natalia Smiejkowska
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ema Romão
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Cécile Vincke
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Juan Lévano
- Laboratorio de Referencia Nacional de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, Centro Nacional de Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Lima, Peru
| | - Mary Celys
- Laboratorio de Referencia Nacional de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, Centro Nacional de Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Lima, Peru
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Jose, Costa Rica
| | - Serge Muyldermans
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
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88
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Abstract
Reptile-associated nidoviruses (serpentoviruses) have been reported to cause
proliferative interstitial pneumonia in pythons and other reptile species. A captive,
younger than 2 years old, intact female ball python (Python regius)
showed increased oral mucus, wheezing, and audible breathing with weight loss. Gross and
microscopic examination revealed large amounts of mucus in the esophagus and proliferative
interstitial pneumonia. Serpentovirus genes were detected from the lung tissues by
polymerase chain reaction. The current serpentoviruses was phylogenetically grouped with
the serpentovirus previously identified in the US. No case of serpentovirus infection has
been reported in Asia. The present report provides information of complete genome sequence
and global distribution of serpentovirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ta Li
- Department of Pathology, Fishhead Labs, LLC, 5658 SE Pine Ave, Stuart, FL 34997, USA
| | - Ming-Shiuh Lee
- Animal Health Research Institute, Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan, No. 376, Zhongzheng Rd., Tamsui Dist., New Taipei 251032, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Chia Tseng
- Jong-Shing Animal Hospital, No. 118-1, Dafeng 2nd Rd., Sanmin Dist., Kaohsiung City 807508, Taiwan
| | - Ning-Ya Yang
- Jong-Shing Animal Hospital, No. 118-1, Dafeng 2nd Rd., Sanmin Dist., Kaohsiung City 807508, Taiwan
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89
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Ryerson WG. Ontogeny of strike performance in ball pythons (Python regius): a three-year longitudinal study. ZOOLOGY 2020; 140:125780. [PMID: 32289748 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2020.125780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Revised: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The rapid strike of snakes has long been of interest in terms of mechanical performance. Recently, several nonvenomous taxa have been found to strike with the same incredible strike velocity and acceleration as the high-performing vipers. However, little is known regarding how these patterns change through ontogeny. Here I present ontogenetic strike data on ten ball pythons (Python regius) over a three year time period, from birth to sexual maturity. I found that performance declined rapidly over the first 18 months in nearly all kinematic measures. This puts the adult data out of the currently developing trend of high performance being maintained across the diversity of snakes. The underlying cause of the decline in performance is unclear, but there are several avenues of behavior, morphology, biomechanics, and ecology to be investigated.
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90
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Ward-Smith H, Arbuckle K, Naude A, Wüster W. Fangs for the Memories? A Survey of Pain in Snakebite Patients Does Not Support a Strong Role for Defense in the Evolution of Snake Venom Composition. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E201. [PMID: 32235759 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12030201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals use venoms for multiple purposes, most prominently for prey acquisition and self-defense. In snakes, venom composition often evolves as a result of selection for optimization for local diet. However, whether selection for a defensive function has also played a role in driving the evolution of venom composition has remained largely unstudied. Here, we use an online survey of snakebite victims to test a key prediction of a defensive function, that envenoming should result in the rapid onset of severe pain. From the analysis of 584 snakebite reports, involving 192 species of venomous snake, we find that the vast majority of bites do not result in severe early pain. Phylogenetic comparative analysis shows that where early pain after a bite evolves, it is often lost rapidly. Our results, therefore, do not support the hypothesis that natural selection for antipredator defense played an important role in the origin of venom or front-fanged delivery systems in general, although there may be intriguing exceptions to this rule.
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91
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Boels D, Hamel JF, Le Roux G, Labadie M, Paret N, Delcourt N, Langrand J, Puskarczyk E, Nisse P, Sinno-Tellier S, de Haro L. Snake bites by European vipers in Mainland France in 2017-2018: comparison of two antivenoms Viperfav ® and Viperatab ®. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2020; 58:1050-1057. [PMID: 32134691 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2020.1726377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Context: Today, immunotherapy with Fab or F(ab')2 fragments is considered as a gold standard treatment for patients bitten by vipers. We compared the efficiency of two antivenoms, Viperfav® and Viperatab®, in mainland France in 2017-2018 with data provided by the French poison control centre (PCC).Methods: Patients with a moderate (2a and 2b) or severe (3) envenomation after a European viper bite and treated with immunotherapy were included and the markers chosen were the risk of post-antivenom treatment worsening, duration of hospital stay and persistent functional discomfort on day 15. Statistical studies were based on multivariate data analysis.Results: Two hundred and ninety-seven cases were recorded. One hundred and eighty-two (61.3%) patients received Viperfav® and 115 (38.7%) received Viperatab®. Compared to Viperfav®, use of Viperatab® significantly increased the risk of post-antivenom treatment worsening (OR* 12.05; 95%CI [3.11; 46.70]; p < .001). No significant difference between these antivenoms was recorded with respect to the duration of hospital stay and persistent functional discomfort on day 15. Viperfav® and Viperatab® have a similar tolerance (p > .21). Otherwise, duration of hospitalisation was significantly increased by a delay of immunotherapy infusion of more than 12 h (OR 2.70; 95%CI [1.45-5.06]; p = .002) or a preventive administration of LMWH (OR 6.55; 95%CI [1.58-27.13]; p=.02).Discussion: While Viperfav® and Viperatab® have a similar tolerance, our data show that Viperatab® was associated with a higher risk of post-antivenom treatment worsening compared to Viperfav®. Furthermore, this study confirms that the antivenom should be used as soon as possible. Indeed, patients receiving the immunotherapy infusion from the grade 2b presented significantly more frequent exacerbated symptoms (OR 3.99; 95%CI [1.16-13.73]; p=.028) after the antivenom infusion compared to grade 2a group.Conclusions: Whereas no significant difference between these antivenoms was recorded with respect to the duration of hospital stay and persistent functional discomfort on day 15, use of Viperatab®, compared to Viperfav®, significantly increased the risk of post-antivenom treatment worsening (OR* 12.05; 95%CI [3.11; 46.70]; p < .001). Taken together, these data show that Viperfav® is the treatment of choice for the management of snake bites in France.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Boels
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Nantes University Hospital, Nantes, France, and Inserm UMRS 1144, University of Paris, France
| | - Jean François Hamel
- Representative of Clinical Research and Innovation, Angers University Hospital, Angers, France
| | - Gaël Le Roux
- Poison Control Centre, Angers University Hospital, Angers, France
| | - Magali Labadie
- Poison Control Centre, Bordeaux University Hospital, Bordeaux, France
| | - Nathalie Paret
- Poison Control Centre, Lyon University Hospital, Lyon, France
| | - Nicolas Delcourt
- Poison Control Centre, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Jérôme Langrand
- Poison Control Centre, Paris University Hospital, Paris, France
| | | | - Patrick Nisse
- Poison Control Centre, Lille University Hospital, Lille, France
| | - Sandra Sinno-Tellier
- ANSES, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health Safety, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Luc de Haro
- Poison Control Centre, Marseille University Hospital, Marseille, France
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92
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Escoriza D. Organization of Squamata (Reptilia) assemblages in Mediterranean archipelagos. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:1592-1601. [PMID: 32076536 PMCID: PMC7029066 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Mediterranean islands have complex reptile assemblages, but little is known about the factors that determine their organization. In this study, the structure of assemblages of Squamata was evaluated based on their species richness and two measures of phylogenetic diversity (variability and clustering). I evaluated the composition of the assemblages comparing distinct biogeographic subregions within the Mediterranean: Adriatic, Aegean, Balearic, Corsica-Sardinia, Crete, Gulf of Gabés, Ionian Sea, Ligurian Sea, Malta, Sicily, and Tyrrhenian Sea. The effect of island environments and geographical isolation on the diversity metrics was assessed using generalized linear models. The analyses indicated that species richness was mostly influenced by island area and geographical isolation. Assemblages on smaller islands were poorer in species and phylogenetically dispersed, possibly as an effect of interspecific competition. The species composition of the assemblages was determined by similar environmental drivers within the biogeographic subregions, including island area, island elevation, geographical isolation, and aridity. In several subregions, significant patterns of phylogenetic attraction were found in species co-occurrences, caused by the limits imposed by the island size on large predatory species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Escoriza
- GRECOInstitute of Aquatic EcologyUniversity of GironaGironaSpain
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93
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Reifinger M, Dinhopl N, Gumpenberger M, Konecny M, Cigler P. Granular Cell Tumour in a California King snake (Lampropeltis californiae). J Comp Pathol 2020; 175:24-28. [PMID: 32138839 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2019.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A 21-year-old female California kingsnake (Lampropeltis californiae) was presented to the University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria, with a space-occupying mass in the caudal abdomen. Following clinical, radiological and sonographical evaluation the mass was removed surgically. Histopathology and transmission electron microscopy confirmed the diagnosis of a granular cell tumour, but immunohistochemical labelling for a range of markers was negative. This lesion is rare in mammals and birds, but has not been reported previously in a reptile.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - N Dinhopl
- Institute of Pathology, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - M Konecny
- Department of Birds and Reptiles, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - P Cigler
- Department of Birds and Reptiles, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
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94
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Qu YF, Zhao SZ, Jiang XF, Lin LH, Ji X. Can snakes use yolk reserves to maximize body size at hatching? Curr Zool 2019; 65:627-631. [PMID: 31857809 PMCID: PMC6911849 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoy098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
We experimentally miniaturized freshly laid eggs of the Chinese cobra Naja atra (Elapidae) by removing ∼10% and ∼20% of original yolk. We tested if yolk-reduced eggs would produce 1) normal-sized hatchlings with invariant yolk-free body mass (and thus invariant linear size) but dramatically reduced or even completely depleted residual yolk, 2) smaller hatchlings with normal-sized residual yolk but reduced yolk-free body mass, or 3) smaller hatchlings of which both yolk-free body mass and residual yolk are proportionally reduced. Yolk quantity affected hatchling linear size (both snout-vent length and tail length) and body mass. However, changes in yolk quantity did not affect incubation length or any hatchling trait examined after accounting for egg mass at laying (for control and sham-manipulated eggs) or after yolk removal (for manipulated eggs). Specifically, yolk-reduced eggs produced hatchlings of which all major components (carcass, residual yolk, and fat bodies) were scaled down proportionally. We show that snakes cannot use yolk reserves to maximize their body size at hatching. Furthermore, our data also suggest that the partitioning of yolk in embryonic snakes is species-specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Fu Qu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shu-Zhan Zhao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xu-Fei Jiang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Long-Hui Lin
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiang Ji
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
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95
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Clement H, Corrales-García LL, Bolaños D, Corzo G, Villegas E. Immunogenic Properties of Recombinant Enzymes from Bothrops Ammodytoides Towards the Generation of Neutralizing Antibodies against Its Own Venom. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E702. [PMID: 31810356 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11120702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Bothropic venoms contain enzymes such as metalloproteases, serine-proteases, and phospholipases, which acting by themselves, or in synergism, are the cause of the envenomation symptoms and death. Here, two mRNA transcripts, one that codes for a metalloprotease and another for a serine-protease, were isolated from a Bothrops ammodytoides venom gland. The metalloprotease and serine-protease transcripts were cloned on a pCR®2.1-TOPO vector and consequently expressed in a recombinant way in E. coli (strains Origami and M15, respectively), using pQE30 vectors. The recombinant proteins were named rBamSP_1 and rBamMP_1, and they were formed by an N-terminal fusion protein of 16 amino acid residues, followed by the sequence of the mature proteins. After bacterial expression, each recombinant enzyme was recovered from inclusion bodies and treated with chaotropic agents. The experimental molecular masses for rBamSP_1 and rBamMP_1 agreed with their expected theoretical ones, and their secondary structure spectra obtained by circular dichroism were comparable to that of similar proteins. Additionally, equivalent mixtures of rBamSP_1, rBamMP_1 together with a previous reported recombinant phospholipase, rBamPLA2_1, were used to immunize rabbits to produce serum antibodies, which in turn recognized serine-proteases, metalloproteases and PLA2s from B. ammodytoides and other regional viper venoms. Finally, rabbit antibodies neutralized the 3LD50 of B. ammodytoides venom.
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96
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Waits DS, Simpson DY, Sparkman AM, Bronikowski AM, Schwartz TS. The utility of reptile blood transcriptomes in molecular ecology. Mol Ecol Resour 2019; 20:308-317. [PMID: 31660689 DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.13110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 08/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Reptiles and other nonmammalian vertebrates have transcriptionally active nucleated red blood cells. If blood transcriptomes can provide quantitative data to address questions relevant to molecular ecology, this could circumvent the need to euthanize animals to assay tissues. This would allow longitudinal sampling of animals' responses to treatments, as well as sampling of protected taxa. We developed and annotated blood transcriptomes from six reptile species and found on average 25,000 proteins are being transcribed in the blood, and there is a CORE group of 9,282 orthogroups that are found in at least four of six species. In comparison to liver transcriptomes from the same taxa, approximately two-thirds of the orthogroups were found in both blood and liver; and a similar percentage of ecologically relevant gene groups (insulin and insulin-like signalling, electron transport chain, oxidative stress, glucocorticoid receptors) were found transcribed in both blood and liver. As a resource, we provide a user-friendly database of gene ids identified in each blood transcriptome. Although on average 37% of reads mapped to haemoglobin, importantly, the majority of nonhaemoglobin transcripts had sufficient depth (e.g., 97% at ≥10 reads) to be included in differential gene expression analysis. Thus, we demonstrate that RNAseq blood transcriptomes from a very small blood sample (<10 μl) is a minimally invasive option in nonmammalian vertebrates for quantifying expression of a large number of ecologically relevant genes that would allow longitudinal sampling and sampling of protected populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien S Waits
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Dasia Y Simpson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | | | - Anne M Bronikowski
- Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology Department, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Tonia S Schwartz
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
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97
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de Castro KLP, Lopes-de-Souza L, de Oliveira D, Machado-de-Ávila RA, Paiva ALB, de Freitas CF, Ho PL, Chávez-Olórtegui C, Guerra-Duarte C. A Combined Strategy to Improve the Development of a Coral Antivenom Against Micrurus spp. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2422. [PMID: 31695693 PMCID: PMC6816313 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Accidents involving Micrurus snakes are not the most common ones but are noteworthy due to their severity. Victims envenomed by Micrurus snakes are at high risk of death and therefore must be treated with coral antivenom. In Brazil, the immunization mixture used to fabricate coral antivenom contains Micrurus frontalis and Micrurus corallinus venoms, which are difficult to be obtained in adequate amounts. Different approaches to solve the venom limitation problem have been attempted, including the use of synthetic and recombinant antigens as substitutes. The present work proposes a combined immunization protocol, using priming doses of M. frontalis venom and booster doses of synthetic B-cell epitopes derived from M. corallinus toxins (four three-finger toxins-3FTX; and one phospholipase A2-PLA2) to obtain coral antivenom in a rabbit model. Immunized animals elicited a humoral response against both M. frontalis and M. corallinus venoms, as detected by sera reactivity in ELISA and Western Blot. Relevant cross-reactivity of the obtained sera with other Micrurus species (Micrurus altirostris, Micrurus lemniscatus, Micrurus spixii, Micrurus surinamensis) venoms was also observed. The elicited antibodies were able to neutralize PLA2 activity of both M. frontalis and M. corallinus venoms. In vivo, immunized rabbit sera completely protected mice from a challenge with 1.5 median lethal dose (LD50) of M. corallinus venom and 50% of mice challenged with 1.5 LD50 of M. frontalis venom. These results show that this combined protocol may be a suitable alternative to reduce the amount of venom used in coral antivenom production in Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Letícia Lopes-de-Souza
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Carlos Chávez-Olórtegui
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
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98
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Lambert H, Carder G, D'Cruze N. Given the Cold Shoulder: A Review of the Scientific Literature for Evidence of Reptile Sentience. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:E821. [PMID: 31627409 DOI: 10.3390/ani9100821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Revised: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Reptiles are popular pets around the world, although their welfare requirements in captivity are not always met, due in part to an apparent lack of awareness of their needs. Herein, we searched a selection of the scientific literature for evidence of, and explorations into, reptile sentience. We used these findings to highlight: (1) how reptiles are recognised as being capable of a range of feelings; (2) what implications this has for the pet trade; and (3) what future research is needed to help maximise their captive welfare. We found 37 studies that assumed reptiles to be capable of the following emotions and states; anxiety, stress, distress, excitement, fear, frustration, pain, and suffering. We also found four articles that explored and found evidence for the capacity of reptiles to feel pleasure, emotion, and anxiety. These findings have direct implications for how reptiles are treated in captivity, as a better understanding of their sentience is critical in providing them with the best quality of life possible. Abstract We searched a selection of the scientific literature to document evidence for, and explorations into reptile sentience. The intention of this review was to highlight; (1) to what extent reptile capability for emotions have been documented in the scientific literature; (2) to discuss the implications this evidence has for the trade in reptiles; and (3) to outline what future research is needed to maximise their captive welfare needs. We used 168 keywords associated with sentience, to search through four journal databases and one open-access journal. We recorded studies that explored sentience in reptiles and those that recognised reptile sentience in their experiments. We found that reptiles were assumed to be capable of the following emotions and states; anxiety, distress, excitement, fear, frustration, pain, stress, and suffering, in 37 articles. We also found four articles that explored and found evidence for the capacity of reptiles to feel pleasure, emotion, and anxiety. These findings show that reptiles are considered to be capable of experiencing a range of emotions and states. This has implications for how reptiles are treated in captivity, as a better understanding could help to inform a range of different operational initiatives aimed at reducing negative animal welfare impacts, including improved husbandry and consumer behaviour change programmes.
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99
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Fons JM, Gaete M, Zahradnicek O, Landova M, Bandali H, Khannoon ER, Richman JM, Buchtova M, Tucker AS. Getting out of an egg: Merging of tooth germs to create an egg tooth in the snake. Dev Dyn 2019; 249:199-208. [PMID: 31587402 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Revised: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The egg tooth is a vital structure allowing hatchlings to escape from the egg. In squamates (snakes and lizards), the egg tooth is a real tooth that develops within the oral cavity at the top of the upper jaw. Most squamates have a single large midline egg tooth at hatching, but a few families, such as Gekkonidae, have two egg teeth. In snakes the egg tooth is significantly larger than the rest of the dentition and is one of the first teeth to develop. RESULTS We follow the development of the egg tooth in four snake species and show that the single egg tooth is formed by two tooth germs. These two tooth germs are united at the midline and grow together to produce a single tooth. In culture, this merging can be perturbed to give rise to separate smaller teeth, confirming the potential of the developing egg tooth to form two teeth. CONCLUSIONS Our data agrees with previous hypotheses that during evolution one potential mechanism to generate a large tooth is through congrescence of multiple tooth germs and suggests that the ancestors of snakes could have had two egg teeth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Fons
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Floor 27 Guy's Tower, Guy's Hospital, King's College London, London Bridge, London, UK
| | - Marcia Gaete
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Floor 27 Guy's Tower, Guy's Hospital, King's College London, London Bridge, London, UK.,Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Oldrich Zahradnicek
- Department of Developmental Biology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marie Landova
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Hussein Bandali
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Floor 27 Guy's Tower, Guy's Hospital, King's College London, London Bridge, London, UK
| | - Eraqi R Khannoon
- Biology Department, College of Science, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.,Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
| | - Joy M Richman
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Marcela Buchtova
- Laboratory of Molecular Morphogenesis, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Abigail S Tucker
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Floor 27 Guy's Tower, Guy's Hospital, King's College London, London Bridge, London, UK.,Department of Developmental Biology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
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100
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Hoon-Hanks LL, Ossiboff RJ, Bartolini P, Fogelson SB, Perry SM, Stöhr AC, Cross ST, Wellehan JFX, Jacobson ER, Dubovi EJ, Stenglein MD. Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Sampling of Serpentovirus (Nidovirus) Infection in Captive Snakes Reveals High Prevalence, Persistent Infection, and Increased Mortality in Pythons and Divergent Serpentovirus Infection in Boas and Colubrids. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:338. [PMID: 31632990 PMCID: PMC6786048 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study of serpentovirus infection in captive snakes was to assess the susceptibility of different types of snakes to infection and disease, to survey viral genetic diversity, and to evaluate management practices that may limit infection and disease. Antemortem oral swabs were collected from 639 snakes from 12 US collections, including 62 species, 28 genera, and 6 families: Pythonidae (N = 414 snakes; pythons were overrepresented in the sample population), Boidae (79), Colubridae (116), Lamprophiidae (4), Elapidae (12), and Viperidae (14). Infection was more common in pythons (38%; 95% CI: 33.1-42.4%), and in boas (10%; 95% CI: 5.2-18.7%) than in colubrids (0.9%, 95% CI: <0.01-4.7%); infection was not detected in other snake families (lamprophiids 0/4, 95% CI: 0-49%; elapids 0/12, 95% CI: 0-24.2%; and vipers 0/14, 95% CI: 0-21.5%), but more of these snakes need to be tested to confirm these findings. Clinical signs of respiratory disease were common in infected pythons (85 of 144). Respiratory signs were only observed in 1 of 8 infected boas and were absent in the single infected colubrid. Divergent serpentoviruses were detected in pythons, boas, and colubrids, suggesting that different serpentoviruses might vary in their ability to infect snakes of different families. Older snakes were more likely to be infected than younger snakes (p-value < 0.001) but males and females were equally likely to be infected (female prevalence: 23.4%, 95% CI 18.7-28.9%; male prevalence: 23.5%, 95% CI 18-30.1%; p-value = 0.144). Neither age (p-value = 0.32) nor sex (p-value = 0.06) was statistically associated with disease severity. Longitudinal sampling of pythons in a single collection over 28 months revealed serpentovirus infection is persistent, and viral clearance was not observed. In this collection, infection was associated with significantly increased rates of mortality (p-value = 0.001) with death of 75% of infected pythons and no uninfected pythons over this period. Offspring of infected parents were followed: vertical transmission either does not occur or occurs with a much lower efficiency than horizontal transmission. Overall, these findings confirm that serpentoviruses pose a significant threat to the health of captive python populations and can cause infection in boa and colubrid species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura L. Hoon-Hanks
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Robert J. Ossiboff
- Department of Comparative Diagnostic and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Pia Bartolini
- Terrestrial & Arboreal, LLC, Melrose, FL, United States
| | | | - Sean M. Perry
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Anke C. Stöhr
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Shaun T. Cross
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - James F. X. Wellehan
- Department of Comparative Diagnostic and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Elliott R. Jacobson
- Department of Comparative Diagnostic and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Edward J. Dubovi
- Animal Health Diagnostic Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Mark D. Stenglein
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
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