General public health considerations for responding to animal hoarding cases

Animal hoarding is an under-recognized problem that exists in most communities and adversely impacts the health, welfare, and safety of humans, animals, and the environment. These guidelines address public health and worker safety concerns in handling situations where animal hoarding or other dense concentrations of animals have caused unhealthy and unsafe conditions. Because animal hoarding situations are often complex, a full response is likely to be prolonged and require a cross-jurisdictional multiagency effort. Each animal hoarding case has unique circumstances related to the types and numbers of animals involved, the physical structure(s) where they are being kept, and the health status of the animals, among other factors that must be taken into account in planning a response. Some general public health considerations and associated recommendations for personal protective equipment use are presented that apply to all cases, however.

Cross species proteomics

Proteomics has advanced in leaps and bounds over the past couple of decades. However, the continuing dependency of mass spectrometry-based protein identification on the searching of spectra against protein sequence databases limits many proteomics experiments. If there is no sequenced genome for a given species, then cross species proteomics is required, attempting to identify proteins across the species boundary, typically using the sequenced genome of a closely related species. Unlike sequence searching for homologues, the proteomics equivalent is confounded by small differences in amino acid sequences, leading to large differences in peptide masses; this renders mass matching of peptides and their product ions difficult. Therefore, the phylogenetic distance between the two species and the attendant level of conservation between the homologous proteins play a huge part in determining the extent of protein identification that is possible across the species boundary. In this chapter, we review the cross species challenge itself, as well as various approaches taken to deal with it and the success met with in past studies. This is followed by recommendations of best practice and suggestions to researchers facing this challenge as well as a final section predicting developments, which may help improve cross species proteomics in the future.

Recent developments in proteome informatics for mass spectrometry analysis

Mass spectrometry has become the pre-eminent analytical method for the study of proteins and proteomes in post-genome science. The high volumes of complex spectra and data generated from such experiments represent new challenges for the field of bioinformatics. The past decade has seen an explosion of informatics tools targeted towards the processing, analysis, storage, and integration of mass spectrometry based proteomic data. In this review, some of the more recent developments in proteome informatics will be discussed. This includes new tools for predicting the properties of proteins and peptides which can be exploited in experimental proteomic design, and tools for the identification of peptides and proteins from their mass spectra. Similarly, informatics approaches are required for the move towards quantitative proteomics which are also briefly discussed. Finally, the growing number of proteomic data repositories and emerging data standards developed for the field are highlighted. These tools and technologies point the way towards the next phase of experimental proteomics and informatics challenges that the proteomics community will face.

Exploiting proteomic data for genome annotation and gene model validation in Aspergillus niger

BACKGROUND

Proteomic data is a potentially rich, but arguably unexploited, data source for genome annotation. Peptide identifications from tandem mass spectrometry provide prima facie evidence for gene predictions and can discriminate over a set of candidate gene models. Here we apply this to the recently sequenced Aspergillus niger fungal genome from the Joint Genome Institutes (JGI) and another predicted protein set from another A.niger sequence. Tandem mass spectra (MS/MS) were acquired from 1d gel electrophoresis bands and searched against all available gene models using Average Peptide Scoring (APS) and reverse database searching to produce confident identifications at an acceptable false discovery rate (FDR).

RESULTS

405 identified peptide sequences were mapped to 214 different A.niger genomic loci to which 4093 predicted gene models clustered, 2872 of which contained the mapped peptides. Interestingly, 13 (6%) of these loci either had no preferred predicted gene model or the genome annotators' chosen "best" model for that genomic locus was not found to be the most parsimonious match to the identified peptides. The peptides identified also boosted confidence in predicted gene structures spanning 54 introns from different gene models.

CONCLUSION

This work highlights the potential of integrating experimental proteomics data into genomic annotation pipelines much as expressed sequence tag (EST) data has been. A comparison of the published genome from another strain of A.niger sequenced by DSM showed that a number of the gene models or proteins with proteomics evidence did not occur in both genomes, further highlighting the utility of the method.

Respiratory alkalosis and primary hypocapnia in Labrador Retrievers participating in field trials in high-ambient-temperature conditions

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether Labrador Retrievers participating in field trials develop respiratory alkalosis and hypocapnia primarily in conditions of high ambient temperatures.

ANIMALS

16 Labrador Retrievers.

PROCEDURES

At each of 5 field trials, 5 to 10 dogs were monitored during a test (retrieval of birds over a variable distance on land [1,076 to 2,200 m]; 36 assessments); ambient temperatures ranged from 2.2 degrees to 29.4 degrees C. For each dog, rectal temperature was measured and a venous blood sample was collected in a heparinized syringe within 5 minutes of test completion. Blood samples were analyzed on site for Hct; pH; sodium, potassium, ionized calcium, glucose, lactate, bicarbonate, and total CO2 concentrations; and values of PvO2 and PvCO2. Scatterplots of each variable versus ambient temperature were reviewed. Regression analysis was used to evaluate the effect of ambient temperature (< or = 21 degrees C and > 21 degrees C) on each variable.

RESULTS

Compared with findings at ambient temperatures < or = 21 degrees C, venous blood pH was increased (mean, 7.521 vs 7.349) and PvCO2 was decreased (mean, 17.8 vs 29.3 mm Hg) at temperatures > 21 degrees C; rectal temperature did not differ. Two dogs developed signs of heat stress in 1 test at an ambient temperature of 29 degrees C; their rectal temperatures were higher and PvCO2 values were lower than findings in other dogs.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

When running distances frequently encountered at field trials, healthy Labrador Retrievers developed hyperthermia regardless of ambient temperature. Dogs developed respiratory alkalosis and hypocapnia at ambient temperatures > 21 degrees C.

Public-health instruction necessary to supplement the veterinary professional curriculum: the DVM/MPH coordinated-degree program at Auburn University

To meet long-term needs, many veterinary colleges and schools are participating in dual-degree DVM/MPH programs. Auburn University's College of Veterinary Medicine and the School of Public Health at the University of Alabama at Birmingham have developed a coordinated-degree curriculum in which the DVM and the MPH are not necessarily awarded simultaneously. Other opportunities at Auburn include Public Health Careers Day, trips to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, several elective courses related to veterinary epidemiology, and online access to the Emerging and Exotic Diseases of Animals course available from the Veterinary Information Network. We have been able to increase our students' exposure to the role of the veterinarian in public health and to develop a program to augment their training in public practice.

Veterinary accreditation and some new imperatives for national preparedness

IN the first of a 5-part series of articles examining the role of the veterinary profession in national preparedness, the authors examine the skills, knowledge, and aptitudes expected of accredited veterinarians and discuss additional skills and knowledge likely to be expected in the future.

Comparison of Multistix PRO dipsticks with other biochemical assays for determining urine protein (UP), urine creatinine (UC) and UP:UC ratio in dogs and cats

BACKGROUND

Urine protein: urine creatinine (UP:UC) ratio determined from the quantitative measurement of protein and creatinine in a single urine sample is the best feasible assessment of clinically significant proteinuria in dogs and cats. A dipstick that measures urine protein, urine creatinine, and UP:UC ratio has been used in human medicine and could have application for veterinary practice.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to compare the Multistix PRO dipstick (Bayer Corporation, Elkhart, IN, USA) to other biochemical methods for determination of urine protein and creatinine, and UP:UC ratio in canine and feline urine.

METHODS

A complete urinalysis, including sulfosalicylic acid (SSA) precipitation, was performed on urine samples submitted to our laboratory between February and April 2003 from 100 dogs and 49 cats. Urine protein and creatinine concentrations were determined by the Multistix PRO dipstick using a Clinitek 50 analyzer (Bayer) and compared with the results of SSA precipitation and quantitative biochemical analysis. The UP:UC ratios from the dipstick results (calculated by the Clinitek 50 and also manually) were compared with those calculated from quantitative values. Pearson product-moment correlation analysis and diagnostic sensitivity and specificity (using quantitative results as the gold standard) were determined.

RESULTS

For both canine and feline urine, protein and creatinine concentrations determined by the Multistix PRO correlated closely with quantitative concentrations for protein (dogs r = .78, P = .0001; cats r = .87, P = .0001) and creatinine (dogs r = .78, P = .0001; cats r = .76, P = .0001). The Multistix PRO was more sensitive and less specific than SSA precipitation for diagnosing clinically significant proteinuria. UP:UC ratios obtained by manual calculation of dipstick results correlated best with quantitative UP:UC ratios in dogs, and had higher specificity but lower sensitivity for the diagnosis of proteinuria. In cats, UP:UC ratios determined by the dipstick method did not correlate (r = -.24, P = .0974) with quantitative values.

CONCLUSIONS

The Multistix PRO, with manual calculation of UP:UC, may be a good alternative for the diagnosis of clinically significant proteinuria in dogs, but not cats. Dipstick creatinine concentration should be considered as an estimate.

Changes in mitotic rate and GFAP expression in the primary olfactory axis of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Many diabetic individuals develop anosmia but the mechanism(s) causing the dysfunction in the olfactory system is (are) unknown. Glial fibrillary acidic protein expression is reduced in diabetic retinopathy and is also reduced, with unknown consequences, in other brain regions of diabetic rats. We used immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting from untreated control and streptozotocin-induced type 1 (insulin dependent) diabetic rats to investigate main olfactory epithelial mitotic rate and glial fibrillary acidic protein expression in the lamina propria of the sensory epithelium and in the olfactory bulb. Numbers of bromodeoxyuridine-positive cells were significantly lower in the diabetic sensory epithelium compared to non-diabetic controls. Immunohistochemical observations suggested a qualitative difference in glial fibrillary acidic protein expression in both regions examined especially in the olfactory bulb external plexiform layer and the lamina propria. Immunoblot analysis confirmed that the diabetic olfactory bulb and lamina propria expressed less glial fibrillary acidic protein compared to the non-diabetic control group. The lower expression levels in the olfactory bulb external plexiform layer suggested by immunohistochemistry do not reflect a change in the number of astrocytes since the numbers of S100B(+) cells were not different between the two groups.

Comparison of the Role of the Subcutaneous Tissues in Cutaneous Wound Healing in the Dog and Cat

OBJECTIVE

To describe and compare the contribution of the subcutaneous tissues to 1st and 2nd intention cutaneous wound healing in the dog and cat.

STUDY DESIGN

Experimental study.

ANIMALS

Domestic shorthaired cats (n=6) and 6 beagle dogs.

METHODS

Paired wounds were created on either side of the dorsal midline; the subcutaneous tissue was removed on 1 side and left intact on the other. Square, open wounds of the dorsal aspect of the thorax were observed for 21 days to monitor granulation tissue formation, wound contraction, epithelialization, and total healing (contraction+epithelialization). Breaking strength of sutured linear wounds was measured 7 days after wounding. Laser-Doppler perfusion imaging (LDPI) was used to measure cutaneous perfusion.

RESULTS

First intention healing: subcutaneous tissue removal had no consistent effect on sutured wound strength at 7 days in dogs or cats. Second intention healing: removal of subcutaneous tissue reduced wound perfusion, granulation, contraction, epithelialization, and total healing. Granulation tissue formation and wound contraction were delayed to a significantly greater degree in cats than in dogs (P<.05). Two dogs (33%) had minor wound infections.

CONCLUSIONS

The subcutaneous tissues make an important contribution to 2nd intention cutaneous healing. Dog and cat wounds had delayed 2nd intention healing when subcutaneous tissues were removed; wounds in dogs, but not cats, had largely recovered from this delay by 21 days.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Extensive debridement of subcutaneous tissue may delay wound healing particularly in feline patients. A higher risk for wound infections may accompany extensive removal of subcutaneous tissues in dogs.

Candidacy of LPS-based glycoconjugates to prevent invasive meningococcal disease: Developmental chemistry and investigation of immunological responses following immunization of mice and rabbits

Glycoconjugates were prepared by covalently linking the immunogenic protein carrier CRM(197) to O-deacylated lipopolysaccharide (LPS) derived from Neisseria meningitidis (strain H44/76), immunotype L3 galE LPS. This mutant strain elaborates a truncated LPS structure that displays immunological epitopes characteristic of 76% of Group B meningococcal (NmB) strains. CRM(197) was covalently linked either to the reducing glucosamine residue of the lipid A region of the O-deacylated LPS or to a 2-keto-3-deoxy-octulosonic acid (Kdo) residue in the inner core region of the O-deacylated LPS. In both rabbits and mice a much stronger IgG response to the immunising antigen was generated in those animals that received conjugates linked via the lipid A region. Sera from mice that were immunized with these conjugates were assayed for their reactivity with LPS, both mutant and wild-type, of several homologous and heterologous NmB strains. Sera obtained from mice immunized with conjugates in which the carrier protein was linked via the Kdo moiety were only able to react with O-deacylated, but not fully acylated (native), LPS from the homologous strain. However, sera obtained from mice that were immunized with conjugates, in which the carrier protein was coupled to the lipid A region, reacted predominately with inner core epitopes that contained phosphoethanolamine at the same 3-position of the distal heptose residue (HepII) of the inner core LPS as was present on the immunising antigen. Additionally it was observed that sera from rabbits immunised with lipid A linked conjugates, unlike the mice responses, were generally not as specific for LPS antigens that contained phosphoethanolamine at the same 3-position as was present on the immunising antigen, but showed a broader inner core recognition, whereas those rabbits that received the Kdo-linked conjugates gave only a very weak non-specific response to all immunotypes. Finally, the sera from two out of six mice that had received lipid A linked conjugates had bactericidal activity against L3 wild-type NmB strain 8047 and one of these was able to passively protect against meningococcal infection in an infant rat model. This study demonstrates evidence towards the proof-in-principle that by using Nm inner core LPS conjugates coupled via the lipid A region with an intact phosphoethanolamine at the O-3 position of the HepII of the inner core LPS, it is possible to elicit functional and protective antibodies against meningococcal infection.

An investigation of the ability of the glutaraldehyde test to distinguish between acute and chronic inflammatory disease in horses

The Glutaraldehyde test (GT), a rapid and inexpensive test, has been utilized empirically for many years in bovine practice for diagnosing inflammatory diseases. GT is used primarily to demonstrate increased serum concentrations of fibrinogen and globulin. Glutaraldehyde binds with free amino groups in fibrinogen and immunoglobulin to create a clot in a first degree chemical reaction. The clotting time of the GT estimates the content of proteins produced in response to inflammation. The applicability of GT for diagnosing inflammation in the horse has never been investigated. The objective of this study was to determine the ability of GT to distinguish between acute and chronic inflammatory disease in horses. Thirty-seven horses with suspected inflammatory diseases were evaluated using the GT, history, complete clinical examination and routine blood analysis. GT-times, laboratory results and clinical outcome were compared statistically. Horses that were determined to be acutely affected (based on history, clinical examination and routine blood analysis) tended to have a negative GT (75%). Results of the GT did not correlate with blood fibrinogen concentration. Positive GT also predicted a fatal outcome in 69% of the clinical cases. The results of this trial indicate that GT can be a useful screening test to distinguish between acute and chronic inflammatory disease in horses.

Cutaneous Wound Healing in the Cat: A Macroscopic Description and Comparison with Cutaneous Wound Healing in the Dog

OBJECTIVE

To describe the macroscopic features of first and second intention cutaneous wound healing in the cat and compare with the dog.

STUDY DESIGN

Experimental study.

ANIMALS

Domestic shorthaired cats (6) and beagle dogs (6).

METHODS

Square, open cutaneous wounds created on the dorsal aspect of the thorax were evaluated for 21 days for temporal and spatial development of granulation tissue, wound contraction, epithelialization, and total healing. To evaluate first intention healing, breaking strength of sutured linear cutaneous wounds was measured at 7 days post-wounding. Laser-Doppler perfusion imaging was used to measure cutaneous perfusion.

RESULTS

First intention healing: sutured wounds in cats were only half as strong as those in dogs at day 7 (0.406 versus 0.818 kg breaking strength). Second intention healing: cats produced significantly less granulation tissue than dogs, with a peripheral, rather than central distribution. Wound epithelialization and total wound healing (total reduction in open wound area from contraction and epithelialization) were greater for dogs than for cats over 21 days. Wound contraction on day 7 was greater for dogs, but not on day 14 or 21. Cutaneous perfusion was initially greater for dogs than for cats, but no differences were detected after day 7.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant, previously unreported differences in cutaneous wound healing exist between cats and dogs. In general, cutaneous wounds in cats are slower to heal. Cats and dogs also appear to use different mechanisms of second intention healing. In cats wounds close mainly by contraction of the wound edges, whereas in dogs wounds close more from central pull, and epithelialization.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Surgeons should view the cat as a unique species, which presents its own special challenges in wound healing, and should take this into account when planning treatment of feline wounds, either by primary closure, or by second intention healing.

Acid resistance systems required for survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in the bovine gastrointestinal tract and in apple cider are different

Escherichia coli O157:H7 is a highly acid-resistant food-borne pathogen that survives in the bovine and human gastrointestinal tracts and in acidic foods such as apple cider. This property is thought to contribute to the low infectious dose of the organism. Three acid resistance (AR) systems are expressed in stationary-phase cells. AR system 1 is sigma(S) dependent, while AR systems 2 and 3 are glutamate and arginine dependent, respectively. In this study, we sought to determine which AR systems are important for survival in acidic foods and which are required for survival in the bovine intestinal tract. Wild-type and mutant E. coli O157:H7 strains deficient in AR system 1, 2, or 3 were challenged with apple cider and inoculated into calves. Wild-type cells, adapted at pH 5.5 in the absence of glucose (AR system 1 induced), survived well in apple cider. Conversely, the mutant deficient in AR system 1, shown previously to survive poorly in calves, was susceptible to apple cider (pH 3.5), and this sensitivity was shown to be caused by low pH. Interestingly, the AR system 2-deficient mutant survived in apple cider at high levels, but its shedding from calves was significantly decreased compared to that of wild-type cells. AR system 3-deficient cells survived well in both apple cider and calves. Taken together, these results indicate that E. coli O157:H7 utilizes different acid resistance systems based on the type of acidic environment encountered.

Electron heat transport measured in a stochastic magnetic field

New profile measurements have allowed the electron thermal diffusivity profile to be estimated from power balance in the Madison Symmetric Torus where magnetic islands overlap and field lines are stochastic. The measurements show that (1) the electron energy transport is conductive not convective, (2) the measured thermal diffusivities are in good agreement with numerical simulations of stochastic transport, and (3) transport is greatly reduced near the reversal surface where magnetic diffusion is small.

Absence of Humoral Response in Flamingos and Red-Tailed Hawks to Experimental Vaccination with a Killed West Nile Virus Vaccine

Sixteen Chilean flamingos, Phoenicopterus chiles, and 10 red-tailed hawks, Buteo jamacensis, were vaccinated in the pectoral muscle with 0.2 ml of a commercially produced killed West Nile virus vaccine intended for use in horses. Half the birds of each species received a booster vaccination 3 weeks after the first injection. Three weeks after the booster vaccination, none of 13 birds surveyed had detectable antibody to West Nile virus.

Long-term survival following intensive care: subgroup analysis and comparison with the general population

This study aimed to compare the very long-term survival of critically ill patients with that of the general population, and examine the association among age, sex, admission diagnosis, APACHE II score and mortality. In a retrospective observational cohort study of prospectively gathered data, 2104 adult patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) of a teaching hospital in Glasgow from 1985 to 1992, were followed until 1997. Vital status at five years was compared with that of an age- and sex-matched Scottish population. Five-year mortality for the ICU patients was 47.1%, 3.4 times higher than that of the general population. For those surviving intensive care the five-year mortality was 33.4%. Mortality was greater than that of the general population for four years following intensive care unit admission (95% confidence interval included 1.0 at four years). Multivariate analysis showed that risk factors for mortality in those admitted to ICU were age, APACHE II score on admission and diagnostic category. Mortality was higher for those admitted with haematological (87.5%) and neurological diseases (61.7%) and septic shock (62.9%). A risk score was produced: Risk Score = 10 (age hazard ratio + APACHE II hazard ratio + diagnosis hazard ratio). None of the patients with a risk score > 100 survived more than five years and for those who survived to five years the mean risk score was 57. Long-term survival following intensive care is not only related to age and severity of illness but also diagnostic category. The risk of mortality in survivors of critical illness matches that of the normal population after four years. Age, severity of illness and diagnosis can be combined to provide an estimate of five-year survival.

Sheared poloidal flow driven by mode conversion in tokamak plasmas

A two-dimensional integral full-wave model is used to calculate poloidal forces driven by mode conversion in tokamak plasmas. In the presence of a poloidal magnetic field, mode conversion near the ion-ion hybrid resonance is dominated by a transition from the fast magnetosonic wave to the slow ion cyclotron wave. The poloidal field generates strong variations in the parallel wave spectrum that cause wave damping in a narrow layer near the mode conversion surface. The resulting poloidal forces in this layer drive sheared poloidal flows comparable to those in direct launch ion Bernstein wave experiments.

Evaluation of sensitivity and specificity of cytologic examination: 269 cases (1999-2000)

OBJECTIVE

To determine sensitivity and specificity of cytologic examination used in a clinical setting.

DESIGN

Retrospective study.

ANIMALS

216 dogs, 44 cats, 4 horses, 2 ferrets, 1 llama, 1 rat, and 1 mouse.

PROCEDURE

Records were reviewed of cases in which a cytologic diagnosis was followed by a surgical biopsy or postmortem examination within 3 days with subsequent histopathologic diagnosis. Diagnoses were compared for agreement at various levels, including complete agreement, partial agreement, no agreement, or no comparison possible because of insufficient or incorrect cytologic specimen. Levels of agreement were compared for different categories of lesions, including neoplastic, inflammatory, dysplastic-hyperplastic-other, and normal tissue. Additionally, levels of agreement for neoplastic lesions were categorized with regard to cell type, degree of malignancy, and location. Sensitivity and specificity of cytologic examination were calculated.

RESULTS

At the level of general agreement (complete and partial agreement), the sensitivity of cytologic examination ranged from 33.3 to 66.1%, depending on the location of the lesion. Cytologic examination was most accurate when used to diagnose cutaneous and subcutaneous lesions and least accurate for diagnosis of liver lesions. Cytologic examination was most effective in diagnosis of neoplastic disease and least effective in diagnosis of dysplastic or hyperplastic conditions.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Cytologic examination is a valuable diagnostic tool, although our results indicated lower accuracy than previously reported. False-negative results (missing a diagnosis) were far more common than false-positive results (categorizing a healthy animal as diseased): therefore, if the clinical index of suspicion is high, cytologic examination should be repeated or another technique should be selected to rule out the suspected condition.

Portosystemic shunts: diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of 64 cases (1993-2001)

Cases diagnosed with portosystemic shunting between the years 1993 and 2001 were reviewed. Sensitivities of screening tests and abdominal ultrasonographic evaluation for the detection of portosystemic shunting were evaluated. Prognosis for surgically treated shunts was also evaluated. Results indicated that both paired serum bile acids and blood ammonia levels were useful screening tests for portosystemic shunting. However, paired bile acid tests were significantly more sensitive than blood ammonia levels. Overall postoperative mortality rates for extrahepatic shunts and intrahepatic shunts were 8.7% and 20%, respectively. Postoperative mortality rates were slightly higher for animals treated with partial ligation when compared to those treated with ameroid ring placement, although this did not reach statistical significance. Long-term complication rates for animals with single extrahepatic portosystemic shunts treated with complete ligation, ameroid ring placement, and partial ligation alone were 9%, 15.4%, and 42%, respectively. Animals >2 years of age with extrahepatic shunts had almost identical postoperative mortality and long-term complication rates as animals < or = 2 years of age. No animal in this study had paired bile acid samples within the reference range postoperatively, indicating continued abnormal liver function after surgery.