Causes of visual impairment in people aged 75 years and older in Britain: an add-on study to the MRC Trial of Assessment and Management of Older People in the Community

BACKGROUND

Visual impairment and blindness are common in older people in Britain. It is important to know the causes of visual impairment to develop health service and research priorities. The authors aimed to identify the causes of visual impairment in people aged 75 years and older in Britain.

METHODS

In the MRC Trial of the Assessment and Management of Older People in the Community, trial nurses tested visual acuity in everyone aged 75 years and older in 53 general practices. For all visually impaired patients in 49 of the 53 medical practices, data regarding the cause of vision loss were extracted from the general practice medical notes. Additional follow up questionnaires were also sent to the hospital ophthalmologist to confirm the cause of vision loss. Visual impairment was defined as a binocular acuity of less than 6/18.

RESULTS

There were 1742 (12.5%) people visually impaired in the 49 participating practices. Of these, 450 (26%) achieved a pinhole visual acuity in either eye of 6/18 or better. In these people, the principal reason for visual loss was considered to be refractive error. The cause of visual loss was available for 976 (76%) of the remaining 1292 visually impaired people identified. The main cause of visual loss was age related macular degeneration (AMD); 52.9% (95% confidence interval 49.2 to 56.5) of people had AMD as a main or contributory cause. This was followed by cataract (35.9%), glaucoma (11.6%), myopic degeneration (4.2%), and diabetic eye disease (3.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

A substantial proportion of visual impairment in our sample of older people in Britain can be attributed to remediable causes-refractive error and cataract. There is considerable potential for visual rehabilitation in this age group. For the large proportion with macular degeneration, low vision services will be important.

Prevalence of visual impairment in people aged 75 years and older in Britain: results from the MRC trial of assessment and management of older people in the community

AIMS

To measure the prevalence of visual impairment in a large representative sample of people aged 75 years and over participating in the MRC trial of assessment and management of older people in the community.

METHODS

53 practices in the MRC general practice research framework. Data were obtained from 14 600 participants aged 75 years and older. Prevalence of visual impairment overall (binocular visual acuity <6/18) which was categorised separately into low vision (binocular visual acuity <6/18-3/60) or blindness (binocular visual acuity of <3/60). The prevalence of binocular acuity <6/12 was presented for comparison with other studies. Visual acuity was measured using Glasgow acuity charts; glasses, if worn, were not removed.

RESULTS

Visual acuity was available for 14 600 people out of 21 241 invited (69%). Among people with visual acuity data, 12.4% overall (1803) were visually impaired (95% confidence intervals 10.8% to 13.9%); 1501 (10.3%) were categorised as having low vision (8.7% to 11.8%), and 302 (2.1%) were blind (1.8% to 2.4%). At ages 75-79, 6.2% of the cohort were visually impaired (5.1% to 7.3%) with 36.9% at age 90+ (32.5% to 41.3%). At ages 75-79, 0.6% (0.4% to 0.8%) of the study population were blind, with 6.9% (4.8% to 9.0%) at age 90+. In multivariate regression, controlling for age, women had significant excess risk of visual impairment (odds ratio 1.43, 95% confidence interval 1.29 to 1.58). Overall, 19.9% of study participants had a binocular acuity of less than 6/12 (17.8% to 22.0%).

CONCLUSION

The results from this large study show that visual impairment is common in the older population and that this risk increases rapidly with advancing age, especially for women. A relatively conservative measure of visual impairment was used. If visual impairment had been defined as visual acuity of <6/12 (American definition of visual impairment), the age specific prevalence estimates would have increased by 60%.

Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for age-related macular degeneration

BACKGROUND

It has been proposed that antioxidants may prevent cellular damage in the retina by reacting with free radicals produced in the process of light absorption.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this review is to assess the effects of antioxidant vitamin and/or mineral supplementation on the progression of age-related macular degeneration.

SEARCH STRATEGY

The Cochrane Controlled Trials Register - CENTRAL/CCTR, which contains the Cochrane Eyes and Vision Group specialised register (Cochrane Library Issue 3 2001), MEDLINE (1966 to August 2001), EMBASE (1980 to September 2001), the Science Citation Index, and the reference lists of relevant articles were searched. Investigators of included studies were contacted for further information.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised trials comparing an antioxidant vitamin and/or mineral supplement (alone or in combination) to control in people with age-related macular degeneration are included in this review.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The reviewer extracted data and assessed trial quality. Due to the variable methods of collecting and presenting outcome data, no statistical summary measure was calculated.

MAIN RESULTS

Seven trials, which randomised 4119 people with signs of age-related macular degeneration, are included in this review. One unpublished trial of zinc supplementation (170 participants) is awaiting assessment. The majority of people (88%) were randomised in one trial that was conducted in a relatively well-nourished American population. This trial found a modest beneficial effect of antioxidant and zinc supplementation on progression to advanced age-related macular degeneration (odds ratio 0.72, 99% confidence interval 0.52 to 0.98). People supplemented with antioxidants and zinc were less likely to lose 15 or more letters of visual acuity (equivalent to a doubling of the visual angle) (odds ratio 0.79, 99% confidence interval 0.60 to 1.04). The other six trials in this review were small and the results were inconsistent.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

The evidence as to the effectiveness of antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplementation in halting the progression of age-related macular degeneration is dominated by one large trial in a relatively well-nourished American population that showed modest benefit in people with moderate to severe signs of the disease. There is no evidence at present that people with early signs of the disease should take supplementation, however, current studies are underpowered to answer that question. The generalisability of these findings to other populations with different nutritional status is not known. Further large well-conducted randomised controlled trials in other populations are required.

Surgical interventions for age-related cataract

BACKGROUND

Cataract is the major cause of global blindness, accounting for 40 to 80% of all blindness in developing countries. The number of people blind from cataract is expected to rise due to the changing age distribution and increasing life expectancy. There is currently no proven intervention to prevent cataract and surgery is the only form of treatment.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this review is to compare the effects of different surgical interventions for age-related cataract.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register - CENTRAL/CCTR, which contains the Cochrane Eyes and Vision Group specialised register (Cochrane Library Issue 3 2001), MEDLINE (1966 to August 2001), EMBASE (1980 to September 2001), the reference lists of identified trials, and we contacted investigators and experts in the field for details of published and unpublished trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials evaluating surgical treatment for people with age-related cataract.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two reviewers independently extracted data and discrepancies were resolved by discussion. Where appropriate, relative risks, odds ratios and weighted mean differences were summarised after assessing heterogeneity between the studies. We used a fixed effect model due to the low number of trials in each comparison.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified six trials that randomised a total of 7828 people. Phacoemulsification gave a better visual outcome than extracapsular surgery and gave a similar average cost per procedure in one trial conducted in the UK. Extracapsular surgery with posterior chamber lens implant and intracapsular surgery with or without an anterior chamber intraocular lens implant gave acceptable visual outcomes at 12 to 24 months after surgery. In three large trials in south Asia, best-corrected visual acuity of less than 6/60 ranged from 0.5 to 4%. Higher rates of poor outcome were observed in a multicentre study with 19 surgeons compared to a single-centre study with two surgeons.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

This review provides evidence from one randomised controlled trial that phacoemulsification gives a better visual outcome than extracapsular extraction with sutures. However, this trial was conducted in a developed country specialised hospital setting and extrapolation to other settings must be made with caution. This review also found evidence that extracapsular cataract extraction with a posterior chamber lens implant provides better visual outcome than intracapsular extraction with aphakic glasses. This finding is also based on the results of a single trial. The long term effects of posterior capsular opacification need to be assessed in larger populations. The data in the review suggest that intracapsular extraction with an anterior chamber lens implant is an effective alternative to intracapsular extraction with aphakic glasses, with similar safety. Further data from developing regions are needed to compare all aspects of intraocular lens surgery with the three main surgical procedures - intracapsular extraction with an anterior chamber lens, extracapsular surgery with a posterior chamber lens with or without sutures.

Outcome of infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia who receive extracorporeal membrane oxygenation therapy

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is an accepted therapy for acute respiratory failure but more recently has been used in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) and superimposed acute pulmonary insults. The purpose of this study was to review the outcomes of such infants.

METHODS

Charts of infants at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP) who had a diagnosis of BPD before ECMO were reviewed. In addition, to obtain survival data in a larger population, the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization (ELSO) Registry was searched for infants with BPD before ECMO.

RESULTS

Of 204 patients who received noncardiac ECMO at CHOP, 9 had BPD before ECMO. Of 7 survivors, 4 were still ventilator dependent at 9 to 39 months of corrected age. Developmentally, 4 had significant global delays, whereas 3 had significant language and motor delays with average to mildly delayed cognitive abilities. The ELSO Registry search showed 76 patients with BPD before ECMO, with a 78% survival.

CONCLUSIONS

The survival rate of infants with BPD who receive ECMO is comparable to, or better than, the survival rates in most other ECMO populations. However, there appears to be a high risk of severe pulmonary and neurodevelopmental sequelae.

Pharmacological assessment of the role of the glycine transporter GlyT-1 in mediating high-affinity glycine uptake by rat cerebral cortex and cerebellum synaptosomes

Two distinct types of glycine transporter, GlyT-1 and GlyT-2, have been characterised. GlyT-1 and GlyT-2 are known to be differentially expressed amongst CNS areas, but direct functional evidence for their relative contributions to high-affinity glycine uptake by brain tissues is lacking. In the present study, we have used the selective GlyT-1 inhibitor N[3-(4"-fluorophenyl)-3-(4"-phenylphenoxy)propyl]sarcosine (NFPS) to investigate the role of GlyT-1 in mediating glycine uptake. HEK293 cells expressing human GlyT-1c or GlyT-2 showed high levels of Na(+)-dependent glycine uptake, with K(m) values of 117+/-13 and 200+/-22 microM, respectively. NFPS potently inhibited uptake in GlyT-1c cells (IC(50) value 0.22+/-0.03 microM), being around 500-fold more potent than glycine or sarcosine, but had no effect on uptake in GlyT-2 cells (IC(50) >10 microM). Efflux of pre-loaded [3H]-glycine from GlyT-1c cells was increased by glycine or sarcosine, whereas NFPS had no effect on its own but blocked the effects of glycine or sarcosine. These results confirm that NFPS is a potent, selective and non-transportable GlyT-1 inhibitor. Rat cortex and cerebellum synaptosomes also showed a high-affinity Na(+)-dependent component of glycine uptake, with affinities similar to those observed for uptake in GlyT-1c or GlyT-2 cells. In cortex synaptosomes, NFPS and sarcosine produced the same maximal inhibition of uptake as glycine itself. However, in cerebellum synaptosomes, the maximal inhibition produced by NFPS and sarcosine was only half that produced by glycine. In both tissues NFPS was around 1000-fold more potent than glycine or sarcosine. Overall, our findings indicate that high-affinity glycine uptake in cerebral cortex occurs predominantly via GlyT-1. However, in cerebellum, only a part of the high-affinity uptake is mediated by GlyT-1, with the remaining NFPS-insensitive component most likely mediated by GlyT-2.

Regulation of sodium currents through oxidation and reduction of thiol residues

Changes in redox state are involved in several physiological and pathophysiological processes. Previous experiments have demonstrated that nitric oxide can function as a reactive oxygen species, inhibiting neuronal sodium currents by nitrosylation of thiol residues. We hypothesized that nitric oxide and thiol oxidizers similarly modulate voltage-dependent sodium currents. Voltage-dependent sodium currents were studied with the whole-cell patch-clamp technique in NB41A3 neuroblastoma cells. The nitric oxide donor 3-(2-hydroxy-2-nitroso-1-propylhydrazino)-1-propanamine did not affect sodium currents. In contrast, the thiol oxidizers thimerosal and 4,4'-dithiopyridine significantly inhibited sodium currents. The effect of thimerosal persisted after washout, but could be fully reversed by the reducing agent dithiothreitol. Reduced glutathione did not restore the sodium current amplitude when given extracellularly, while intracellular glutathione prevented the inhibitory effect of thimerosal. Pretreatment with the alkylating agent N-ethylmaleimide blocked the inhibitory action of thimerosal. Thiol oxidation caused a shift in the voltage dependence of fast and slow inactivation to more hyperpolarized potentials without concomitant effects on the voltage dependence of activation. Mercaptoethanol and reduced glutathione enhanced sodium currents by shifting the voltage dependence of inactivation to depolarized potentials. These results demonstrate that the oxidation and reduction of thiol residues alters the properties of voltage-sensitive sodium channels and may play an important role in the regulation of membrane excitability.

Postoperative astigmatism after intracapsular cataract surgery: results of a randomised controlled trial in Nepal

PURPOSE

Postoperative astigmatism following intracapsular cataract extraction with or without anterior chamber intraocular lens implantation is reported as an outcome from a randomised controlled trial.

METHODS

Five hundred and two of 1002 eyes randomised to intracapsular cataract extraction with anterior chamber intraocular lens (ICCE/AC IOL) and 417 of 998 eyes to intracapsular cataract extraction with aphakic spectacles (ICCE/AS) were seen for objective refraction one year after surgery. The prevalence and axis of astigmatism were evaluated using univariate analysis. Logistic regression was used to compare the postoperative astigmatism between the groups.

RESULTS

Acceptable astigmatism (-0.5 to 0.0 DCyl) in the AC IOL group was found in 60 (12.0%) patients (95% CI 9.1%-14.9%) and in the aphakic spectacles group (AS) in 69 (16.5%) patients (95% CI 12.9%-20.1%), moderate astigmatism (-1.0 to-1.5 DCyl) was found in 153 (30.4%) patients (95% CI 26.4-34.6%) in ACIOL group and in 288 (69.1%) patients (95% CI 64.6%-73.6%) in AS group; and large astigmatism (-2.0 to - 8.0 D Cyl) was found in 289 (57.6%) patients (95% CI 53.1%-61.6%) in ACIOL group and in 60 (14.4%) patients (95% CI 11.0% 17.8%) in AS group. Large astigmatism was approximately four times more common in the ICCE/AC IOL group compared to ICCE/AS group. In both groups, most patients had "against-the-rule" astigmatism, 446 (88.8%) (95%CI 86.0%-91.6%) in AC IOL group and 348 (83.5%) (95%CI 79.9%-87.1%) in AS group.

CONCLUSION

Astigmatism is common after intracapsular cataract extraction. Insertion of an anterior chamber IOL increases the risk of astigmatism.

Risk factors for age-related macular degeneration

There is an increasing body of evidence as to the risk factors for age-related macular degeneration. Age and genetic make-up are the most important risk factors identified to date. Over the next decade, the different genes that are involved in the development of age-related macular degeneration will be identified. There is reasonably consistent evidence that smoking cigarettes results in increased risk of the disease. The question as to whether antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplementation prevents or delays the development of the disease will be resolved as the results of large ongoing trials become available in the next few years. Currently, there is conflicting evidence as to their benefits and some indication as to possible harm. Other risk factors such as alcohol consumption, oestrogen replacement and lifetime light exposure require further study. The study of the epidemiology of age-related macular degeneration would be facilitated by a greater standardization of methods. Studies with large numbers of late stage disease are needed in order to provide the power to investigate moderate risks. This may either be achieved by adding on macular degeneration studies to large cohort studies already in place, or by pooling data from smaller studies.

Long term clinical outcome of a randomised controlled trial of anterior chamber lenses after high volume intracapsular cataract surgery

BACKGROUND

Age related cataract remains the major cause of blindness throughout the world. In many countries, the majority of cataract surgery continues to be done by the intracapsular cataract extraction (ICCE) method. The results of a large randomised controlled trial of multiflex open loop anterior chamber intraocular lenses (ACIOL) were reported from a busy eye hospital in Nepal.

METHODS

There was a randomised controlled trial of 2000 people with bilateral cataract reducing vision to less than 6/36. Interventions were ICCE with an ACIOL compared with ICCE with aphakic spectacles (+11 dioptres). Participants were followed at discharge, 6 weeks, 1 year, and 1 1/2-5 years after surgery. Visual acuity and clinical outcome were measured. A poor outcome was defined as vision <6/60.

RESULTS

Visual outcome was comparable in the two groups. More of the control group experienced functional blindness due to loss of aphakic spectacles at 1 year. The majority of cases of poor outcome occurred in the first year after surgery. There was no indication of any lens related problems after 1 year.

CONCLUSION

Multiflex open loop anterior chamber lenses are safe for up to 1 year of follow up when used by experienced surgeons, and the available evidence of 2-5 years of follow up suggests that the complication rate is reasonably low. An ACIOL at the time of cataract surgery offers benefits over routine ICCE surgery with aphakic spectacle correction as it avoids the problem of replacing lost and broken spectacles.

Bilateral external iliac and common femoral artery disruptions after blunt trauma

Blunt trauma to the external iliac or common femoral artery is relatively rare. Since its original description as the "motor-scooter handlebar syndrome," this type of injury has been hypothesized as resulting from compression of the artery by the inguinal ligament. We report a case of mirror-image arterial injuries from blunt trauma. At operation, each distal external iliac and proximal common femoral artery was found to have large intimal flaps. Resection of the injured segments with bilateral saphenous vein interposition grafts led to a successful outcome.

Leaf respiration of snow gum in the light and dark. Interactions between temperature and irradiance

We investigated the effect of temperature and irradiance on leaf respiration (R, non-photorespiratory mitochondrial CO(2) release) of snow gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora Sieb. ex Spreng). Seedlings were hydroponically grown under constant 20 degrees C, controlled-environment conditions. Measurements of R (using the Laisk method) and photosynthesis (at 37 Pa CO(2)) were made at several irradiances (0-2,000 micromol photons m(-2) s(-1)) and temperatures (6 degrees C-30 degrees C). At 15 degrees C to 30 degrees C, substantial inhibition of R occurred at 12 micromol photons m(-2) s(-1), with maximum inhibition occurring at 100 to 200 micromol photons m(-2) s(-1). Higher irradiance had little additional effect on R at these moderate temperatures. The irradiance necessary to maximally inhibit R at 6 degrees C to 10 degrees C was lower than that at 15 degrees C to 30 degrees C. Moreover, although R was inhibited by low irradiance at 6 degrees C to 10 degrees C, it recovered with progressive increases in irradiance. The temperature sensitivity of R was greater in darkness than under bright light. At 30 degrees C and high irradiance, light-inhibited rates of R represented 2% of gross CO(2) uptake (v(c)), whereas photorespiratory CO(2) release was approximately 20% of v(c). If light had not inhibited leaf respiration at 30 degrees C and high irradiance, R would have represented 11% of v(c). Variations in light inhibition of R can therefore have a substantial impact on the proportion of photosynthesis that is respired. We conclude that the rate of R in the light is highly variable, being dependent on irradiance and temperature.

Ginkgo biloba extract for age-related macular degeneration

BACKGROUND

Ginkgo is used in the treatment of peripheral vascular disease and 'cerebral insufficiency'. It is thought to have several potential mechanisms of action including increased blood flow, platelet activating factor antagonism and prevention of membrane damage caused by free radicals. Vascular factors and oxidative damage are thought to be two potential mechanisms in the pathology of age-related macular degeneration.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this review is to determine the effect of Ginkgo biloba extract on the progression of age-related macular degeneration.

SEARCH STRATEGY

The Cochrane Eyes and Vision Group specialised register, the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register - Central, MEDLINE, reference lists of identified trial reports, and the Science Citation Index were searched. The reviewer contacted Investigators of included studies for additional information. The most recent searches were performed in February 2000.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All randomised trials where Ginkgo biloba extract had been compared to control in people with age-related macular degeneration were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The reviewer extracted data using a standardised form. The data were verified with the trial investigator.

MAIN RESULTS

One published trial was identified. Although a beneficial effect was observed, as only 20 people were enrolled in the trial, and assessment of outcome was not masked, its results must be considered equivocal. Adverse effects and quality of life for people with age-related macular degeneration have not been addressed. One unpublished trial is awaiting translation and assessment.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

The question as to whether people with age-related macular degeneration should take Ginkgo biloba extract to prevent progression of the disease has not been answered by research to date.

Randomized controlled trial of anterior-chamber intraocular lenses in Nepal: long-term follow-up

Most of the estimated 20 million people who are blind with cataracts live in rural areas of developing countries, where expert surgical resources are scarce. We have studied the use of multiflex open-loop anterior-chamber intraocular lenses (ACIOL) in high-volume low-cost surgery. Between 1992 and 1995, a total of 2000 people attending Lahan Eye Hospital, Nepal, with bilateral cataracts reducing vision to < or = 6/36 were randomly allocated to receive intracapsular extraction (ICCE) with aphakic spectacles, or ICCE with an ACIOL. We re-examined the cohort (1305/2000, 65%) between November 1996 and April 1997 and report the findings in this article. There were 13 new cases of poor visual outcome (best corrected vision < 6/60) arising after one year: 9 in the ACIOL group and 4 in the control group; odds ratio 2.1 (95% confidence interval, 0.59-9.55). The causes of poor outcome were as follows: ACIOL group--retinal detachment (4 cases), cystoid macular oedema (2), epiretinal membrane (1), age-related macular degeneration (1), and late endophthalmitis (1); control group--retinal detachment (2 cases), late endophthalmitis (1), and primary open-angle glaucoma with age-related macular degeneration (1). In rural areas of developing countries, well-manufactured multiflex open-loop ACIOLs can be implanted safely by experienced ophthalmologists after routine ICCE, avoiding the disadvantages of aphakic spectacle correction.

Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplementation for preventing age-related macular degeneration

BACKGROUND

Some observational studies have suggested that people who eat a diet rich in antioxidant vitamins (carotenoids, vitamins C and E) or minerals (selenium and zinc) may be less likely to develop age-related macular degeneration.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this review is to examine the evidence as to whether or not taking vitamin or mineral supplements prevents the development of age-related macular degeneration.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Eyes and Vision Group specialised register, the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register - Central, MEDLINE, reference lists of identified reports and the Science Citation Index. We contacted investigators and experts in the field for details of unpublished studies. The most recent searches were conducted in June 1999.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All randomised trials comparing an antioxidant vitamin and/or mineral supplement (alone or in combination) to control were included. We included only studies where supplementation had been given for at least one year.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Both reviewers independently extracted data and assessed trial quality. Currently there is only one published trial included in the review so no data synthesis was conducted.

MAIN RESULTS

One trial is included in the review. This was a primary prevention trial in Finnish male smokers with four treatment groups: alpha-tocopherol alone, beta-carotene alone, alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene, placebo. The add-on maculopathy study was conducted in a subset of the main trial cohort. 269 cases of maculopathy (14 late stage age-related macular degeneration) were identified. There was no association of age-related macular degeneration with treatment.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

There is no evidence to date that people without age-related macular degeneration should take antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements to prevent or delay the onset of the disease. The results of five large ongoing trials are awaited.

Is anterior chamber lens implantation after intracapsular cataract extraction safe in rural black patients in Africa? A pilot study in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

PURPOSE

There are an estimated 16 million people blind from cataract world-wide. In many areas the routine operation is intracapsular cataract extraction (ICCE). The role of modern anterior chamber (AC) intraocular lenses (IOLs) is being explored, and they have been shown to be safe and successful in Asia. Are they equally safe in rural black African populations?

METHODS

One hundred black patients aged 50 years and over who attended Edendale Hospital were enrolled in a pilot study of insertion of AC IOLs after ICCE. They were followed up for 6 months.

RESULTS

With financial remuneration, the follow-up rate at 8 weeks increased from the usual 30% to 72%. At 6 months, 67% of eyes achieved a correlated visual acuity of 6/18 or better. Thirty per cent had persistent uveitis, 16% had peripheral anterior synechiae beyond the points of haptic contact, and 5% had an intraocular pressure greater than 21 mmHg.

CONCLUSIONS

A randomised trial comparing ICCE with AC IOL and extracapsular cataract extraction with posterior chamber IOL is probably not justified at this time in this population. However, there may be wide variations in the reaction of the eyes of different African ethnic groups to IOLs. In view of the successful use of AC IOLs in Asian eyes, further pilot studies of AC IOLs may be warranted in other parts of Africa where ICCE is the routine procedure.

Does raised intraocular pressure begin in utero?

AIM

To determine whether fetal and infant growth, as assessed by weight at birth and weight at 1 year, are related to intraocular pressure.

METHODS

717 men and women born in Hertfordshire between 1920 and 1930, for whom records of birth weight and weight at 1 year were available, were examined. Visual fields were assessed using the Takagi central 25 degrees 75 point static threshold screening program. Tonometry was performed using the Perkin's tonometer. The disc was assessed by direct ophthalmoscopy through dilated pupils.

RESULTS

A significant inverse relation was found between systolic blood pressure and birth weight. However, no association was found between birth weight or weight at 1 year and intraocular pressure, cup/disc ratio, or visual field defects.

CONCLUSIONS

There was no evidence to support fetal or infant growth as being important factors for the subsequent development of raised intraocular pressure.

Are rates of ageing determined in utero?

BACKGROUND

epidemiological studies have shown that poor early growth is associated with cardiovascular and other degenerative diseases. This has been explained by programming, whereby undernutrition and other influences which restrict early growth permanently change the structure and physiology of the body. The long-term effects of poor early nutrition on ageing have been demonstrated in animals but not studied in man.

OBJECTIVES

to determine if poor early growth was associated with increased markers of ageing in later life.

METHODS

we traced 1428 men and women, born in Hertfordshire between 1920 and 1930, for whom records of early weight were available. 824 (58%) were interviewed at home and 717 (50%) attended clinic for eye examination, audiometry, grip strength measurement, skin thickness ultrasound and anthropometry.

RESULTS

lower weight at 1 year was associated with increased lens opacity score, higher hearing threshold, reduced grip strength and thinner skin. Visual acuity, macular degeneration and intraocular pressure were not related to early growth.

CONCLUSIONS

the associations between early growth and markers of ageing suggest that in some systems, ageing may be programmed by events in early life. A potential mechanism is the impaired development of repair systems.

Age-related nuclear lens opacities are associated with reduced growth before 1 year of age

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between fetal and infant growth, as measured by birthweight and weight at 1 year and the development of age-related lens opacities.

METHODS

A total of 1428 men and women who were born in Hertfordshire, United Kingdom, between 1920 and 1930, and for whom records of birthweight and weight at 1 year were available, were traced and invited for examination. Of these, 717 (50%) attended for ophthalmic examination. After dilation with tropicamide 1%, lens opacities were graded using the Lens Opacities Classification System (LOCS) III.

RESULTS

In this population of English men and women aged 64 to 74 years, most opacities were of the nuclear type. There was no association between birthweight and nuclear lens opacities. Weight at 1 year was negatively correlated with nuclear opacity score in adult life (P=0.001). Subjects in the highest tertile for weight at 1 year (>23 pounds) had an odds ratio of 0.35 (95% confidence interval, 0.17 to 0.74) for having a significant nuclear lens opacity (LOCS score of > or = 3) compared with people in the lowest tertile for weight at 1 year (<21 pounds). This association remained after controlling for age, sex, smoking, social class, adult height, and diabetes.

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge, this is the first time that such an association has been reported; it needs to be replicated in other populations. It could provide part of the explanation for the observed excess risk of cataract in developing countries.

Systemic risk factors for idiopathic macular holes: a case-control study

PURPOSE/BACKGROUND

The idiopathic full-thickness macular hole (IFTMH) is an important cause of poor vision in the elderly affecting predominantly women over the age of 60 years. While it is accepted that vitreoretinal traction is an important local factor in the development of IFTMH, the underlying cause is not known. The aim of this study was to identify possible systemic risk factors for the development of IFTMH.

METHODS

Two hundred and thirty-seven patients with IFTMH (cases) attending the Macular Hole Clinic at Moorfields Eye Hospital were identified. These were compared with 172 patients without macular holes (controls) attending other clinics in the same hospital. Cases and controls were frequency-matched by sex. The prevalence of the following factors in both groups was ascertained by interview: ethnic origin, place of birth, housing tenure, any systemic diseases, current and lifetime consumption of medication, severe dehydrational episodes, menstrual and obstetric history, onset and severity of menopause and use of exogenous oestrogens (in women only), osteoporosis, vegetarianism, use of vitamin supplementation, and smoking and alcohol consumption. Height and weight were measured for all participants.

RESULTS

Cases of IFTMH macular holes were predominantly women (67%) and aged 65 years and older (74%). We found very few systemic risk factors that were significantly associated with IFTMH. There was a higher prevalence of diabetes in controls (12% vs 5%). There was no association between the majority of indicators of oestrogen exposure in women and macular holes, but cases had a more difficult menopause as judged by the severity of hot flushes at menopause: odds ratio 2.6 (1.4-4.6).

CONCLUSIONS

In common with other studies, we found only a few systemic factors associated with IFTMH. The study did confirm, however, that IFTMH is a strongly gender-related disease. There is some evidence for the role of sudden changes in hormonal balance, as seen by the increased reporting of severity of symptoms around the menopause along with (statistically non-significant) increased risks associated with hysterectomy and oophorectomy. The particular aetiological factor which puts women at increased risk of macular holes requires further studies.

[Value of anterior chamber lenses in developing countries. Results of a clinical study]

There are estimated to be 20 million people blinded by cataracts, 80-90% of whom live in rural areas of developing countries where expert surgical resources are scarce. The majority of all cataract operations are still intracapsular extractions (ICCE). Aphakic correction using spectacles is problematical in developing countries. This study was undertaken to evaluate the safety of multiflex open loop anterior chamber intraocular lenses (AC IOLs).

METHODS

A total of 2000 people attending Lahan Eye Hospital, South-east Nepal, with bilateral cataract were randomly allocated to receive in their first eye either ICCE with AC IOL (AC IOL group) or ICCE with aphakic correction (control group). All operations were performed by two ophthalmologists using a standardized technology and 4.5 x operating loupe magnification. Functional and best corrected vision was recorded. The primary outcome measure was poor vision after surgery, which was defined as a visual acuity of less than 6/60 at 1 year follow-up (WHO definition for severe visual impairment and blindness).

FINDINGS

The median time needed to perform ICCE was 4.1 min and to perform ICCE with AC IOL 6 min. Of all study patients 91% were examined after 1 year. Five percent of the AC IOL group and 5.4% of the control group had a functional visual acuity of less than 6/60. Causes of reduced vision in the AC IOL group versus the control group were: correctable refractive error (22 vs 29), uveitis/secondary glaucoma (13 vs 2), endophthalmitis (4 vs 7), pre-existing eye diseases (4 vs 5), retinal detachment (0 vs 4), and corneal decompensation (0 vs 1). Of the control group, 24 patients were found to be functionally blind in the operated eye (vision < 3/60) because they did not wear their aphakic spectacles. Normal vision (WHO definition: > or = 6/18) was achieved best corrected in 89.9% of the AC IOL group and 93.2% of the control group. Analysis of additional long-term follow-ups (2-5 years post-operatively) has not yet been completed.

INTERPRETATION

This study provides evidence that in developing countries well-manufactured multiflex open loop AC IOLs can be implanted safely by experienced ophthalmologists after routine ICCE, avoiding the disadvantages of aphakic spectacle correction.

Randomised controlled trial of anterior-chamber intraocular lenses

BACKGROUND

There are an estimated 16 million people blind in both eyes with cataracts. Most live in rural areas of developing countries where surgical resources are scarce. There is no consensus on the most appropriate type of intraocular lens in situations where high-volume low-cost surgery is required. This study was undertaken to evaluate the safety of multiflex open-loop anterior-chamber lenses (ACIOLs).

METHODS

2000 people attending Lahan Eye Hospital, southern Nepal, with bilateral cataracts reducing vision to 6/36 or less were randomly allocated to receive standard surgery--intracapsular extraction (ICCE) with aphakic correction--or ICCE with an ACIOL in their first operated eye. The primary outcome was a visual acuity of less than 6/60 in the operated eye at 1 year follow-up. Visual acuity was measured for 91% of the cohort at 1 year. The sample size was estimated to detect a doubling in poor visual outcome from an estimated rate of 4% in the standard surgery (control) group.

FINDINGS

The median (range) time taken to do the surgery was 6.0 (3.0-17.2) min for the ACIOL group and 4.1 (2.4-10.3) min for the control group. 1 year after surgery, 5.0% of the ACIOL group and 5.4% of controls had functional vision less than 6/60 (OR 0.93 [0.60-1.43], p = 0.71). The causes of poor vision in the ACIOL and control groups were: correctable refractive error (22 and 29), uveitis/secondary glaucoma (13 and two), endophthalmitis (four and seven), pre-existing eye disease (four and five), retinal detachment (none and four), cystoid macular oedema (two and none), corneal ulcer (one and one), and corneal decompensation (none and one).

INTERPRETATION

This study provides evidence that, in rural areas of developing countries, multiflex open-loop ACIOLs can be implanted safely by experienced ophthalmologists after routine ICCE, avoiding the disadvantages of aphakic spectacle correction. Further follow-up is planned.