Prevalence of blood-borne viral infections (cytomegalovirus, human herpesvirus-6, human herpesvirus-7, human herpesvirus-8, human T-cell lymphotropic virus-I/II, human retrovirus-5) among blood donors in Latvia

The identification of blood-borne viral infections is important in transfusion medicine. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of human herpesvirus (HHV) [cytomegalovirus (CMV), HHV-6, HHV-7 HHV-8] and human retrovirus (HRV) (human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV)-I/II, HRV-5) infections among apparently healthy Latvian blood donors. DNA extracted from peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) of 150 individuals was tested for herpesviruses by sensitive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. None of the blood donors was positive for HHV-8 infection, while the incidence of latent beta-herpesvirus infections was high: single infection by CMV, HHV-6, and HHV-7 was detected in 2.6%, 8.0%, and 43.3% of blood donors, respectively. Simultaneous dual and triple infections of these viruses were observed in 28.0% and 4.7% of individuals, respectively. Active infection by CMV and HHV-6 was not found, but HHV-7 DNA was present in plasma of 10.6% of the blood donors. While all blood donors were HTLV-II and HRV-5 negative, 4.6% of HTLV-I seronegative blood donors were positive for the HTLV-I tax gene, although none of them harbored sequences for structural genes of the provirus. Based on our results, we conclude that monitoring of beta-herpesvirus infections in blood donors can be important in cases of transfusions to immunocompromised persons. HHV-8, as well as the retroviruses HTLV-II and HRV-5, were not found in blood of Latvian blood donors. More investigations are required to explain the presence of the HTLV-I tax sequence in seronegative blood donors.

Sequence evolution and cross-reactive antibody responses to hypervariable region 1 in acute hepatitis C virus infection

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection may result in acute resolving or chronic infection. Patients that clear the infection have a more vigorous cellular immune response and an early humoral response to the hypervariable region 1 (HVR1) of the E2 envelope protein. To analyse further the properties of the early anti-HVR1 response, cross-reactivity of anti-HVR1 responses was assessed in five patients with acute HCV infection, who were infected by the same virus strain during a nosocomial outbreak. The sequence evolution of HVR1 was examined in sequential serum samples up to 37 months post infection. Peptides were synthesised corresponding to the obtained HVR1 sequences and unrelated HVR1 sequences, and antibody reactivity to the peptides in sequential sera was investigated by ELISA. The results suggest an association between specific gaps in humoral immunity and the HVR1 sequence evolution during early infection. Possible interpretations of this phenomenon include immune escape mechanisms or suppression of specific anti-HVR1 antibodies.

Human retrovirus type 5 sequences in non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of T cell origin

DNA of a recently described fifth exogenous retrovirus (HRV-5) has been found in blood samples from patients with autoimmune diseases and lymphoma. We analyzed HRV-5 sequence in DNA extracted from whole blood of 17 patients with T cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) and 186 patients with hematological malignancies other than NHL, using a sensitive PCR technique. While all samples of patients with hematological malignancies other than NHL were negative, 2 of the 17 patients with T cell NHL were HRV-5 DNA positive. Both HRV-5-positive patients had T cell NHL of high-grade malignancy (stage IV) and diffuse distribution of the lymphoma, including infiltration of bone marrow or lung and pleura. The difference in HRV-5 DNA detection frequency between NHL and control groups is significant (p value of 0.0004 judged by the Fisher exact test). These data, together with our previous finding of HRV-5 DNA in three B cell NHL cases, are compatible with an association between HRV-5 and NHL, of both T cell and B cell origin.

Broad Spectrum of Time of Detection, Primary Symptoms and Disease Progression in Infants with HIV-1 Infection

The relationship between time of HIV-1 detection, appearance of symptoms and disease progression was studied in all 24 HIV-1-infected infants from a cohort of 117 children who were born to HIV-1-infected mothers and monitored from birth. HIV isolation from plasma and mononuclear cells, HIV-1 DNA PCR (polymerase chain reaction) and, retrospectively, a quantitative assay for HIV-1 RNA were used for virus detection. Two infants possibly exhibited a symptomatic primary HIV infection. More children with than without symptoms during the first year of life progressed to immunological class 3 (P=0.013) and to AIDS or death (P=0.003) during follow-up. HIV-1 was detected within 4 days of age in 4 of 16 infants: 3 of them became symptomatic within 1 year, as did 6 of the remaining 12 infants (not statistically significant). All four infants in whom virus was detected within 4 days of age progressed to severe immunosuppression, compared to 6 of 14 in whom the virus detection test was initially negative prior to the first positive result (n.s.). Two children with previous repeatedly negative HIV detection tests were diagnosed with HIV-1 infection at 8 and 9 months, respectively. Repeated blood sampling is needed for the diagnosis of HIV-1 infection in perinatally exposed infants, and virus detection tests for exclusion of HIV-1 infection must be used with caution.

Activation of type I interferon system in systemic lupus erythematosus correlates with disease activity but not with antiretroviral antibodies

The objective was to investigate the relation between serum levels of interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha), the activity of an endogenous IFN-alpha inducing factor (SLE-IIF), clinical and immunological disease activity as well as serum levels of antiretroviral antibodies in SLE. Serum levels of IFN-alpha were measured in serial sera from 30 patients sampled at different stages of disease activity (SLEDAI score). The SLE-IIF activity was measured by its ability to induce IFN-alpha production in cultures of normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Both serum IFN-alpha and SLE-IIF increased markedly at flare in serially followed patients. The SLEDAI score, levels of anti-dsDNA antibodies and IL-10 correlated positively, and complement components Clq, C3 and leukocytes correlated inversely with serum concentrations of IFN-alpha. The extent of multiple organ involvement correlated with serum IFN-alpha. No relation between concentrations of retroviral peptide binding antibodies and IFN-alpha or SLE-IIF activity was found. The close relationship between disease activity in SLE patients and IFN-alpha serum levels suggests that activation of the type 1 IFN system might be of importance in the disease process.

Identification of novel porcine endogenous betaretrovirus sequences in miniature swine

PCR amplification of genomic DNA from miniature swine peripheral blood lymphocytes, using primers corresponding to highly conserved regions of the polymerase (pol) gene, allowed the identification of two novel porcine endogenous retrovirus (PERV) sequences, PMSN-1 and PMSN-4. Phylogenetic analyses of the nucleotide sequences of PMSN-1 and PMSN-4 revealed them to be most closely related to betaretroviruses. The identification of PERVs belonging to the Betaretrovirus genus shows that endogenous retroviruses of this family are more broadly represented in mammalian species than previously appreciated. Both sequences contained inactivating mutations, implying that these particular loci are defective. However, Southern blot analysis showed additional copies of closely related proviruses in the miniature swine genome. Analyses of fetal and adult miniature swine tissues revealed a broad mRNA expression pattern of both PMSN-1 and PMSN-4. The most abundant expression was detected in whole bone marrow c-kit(+) (CD117(+)) progenitor bone marrow cells, fetal liver, salivary gland, and thymus. It appears unlikely that functional loci encoding these novel PERV sequences exist, but this remains to be established. The betaretrovirus sequences described in this report will allow such investigations to be actively pursued.

Increased immunoglobulin G, but not M, binding to endogenous retroviral antigens in HIV-1 infected persons

The modes of interaction between products of human endogenous retroviral (HERV) sequences and the immune system are largely unknown. In HIV infected persons, an exogenous retrovirus adds further complexity to the situation. Therefore, 14 synthetic peptides with sequences derived from conserved regions of various endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) and from related exogenous retroviruses were used to search for IgG and IgM antibodies that bind to such antigens in 15 HIV-1 seropositive and 17 seronegative immunosuppressed patients. IgG binding to three peptides, namely, the C-terminal half of murine leukemia virus (MLV) capsid protein, the conserved portion of HERV-H transmembrane protein, and the Pol region of human mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV)-like (HML3) sequence, was observed in both groups. Binding was, however, more frequent and more firm in HIV-1 positive samples (P<0.0001, Wilcoxon rank sum test). IgM binding to the same peptides showed no significant differentiation between the two groups of patients. Binding to both immunoglobulin isotypes was sometimes variable over time in both groups. No correlation of either IgG or IgM peptide binding with progression to AIDS in HIV-1 infected individuals was observed. Inhibition studies using analogous endogenous and exogenous retroviral peptides, including HIV-1, demonstrated specificity of the IgG antibodies for a narrow range of MLV- and MMTV-like retroviral antigens, and excluded cross-reactivity of antibodies to HIV-1 as a cause of these observations. Thus, unlike IgG, IgM binding to retroviral antigens was ubiquitous. It is suggested that anti-HERV IgM belong to a class of natural antibodies and might serve as primers in the mediation of humoral immune responses to more or less related exogenous retroviruses. Increased IgG binding in HIV-1 infected individuals could result from such priming, or reflect higher HERV antigen expression.

Varieties of long-term outcome among patients in psychoanalysis and long-term psychotherapy. A review of findings in the Stockholm Outcome of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy Project (STOPP)

This paper reports the main findings of a large-scale study of subsidized psychoanalysis and long-term psychotherapy. More than 400 people in various phases, before, during and after subsidized psychoanalysis or long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy, were followed up for a period of three years with personal interviews, questionnaires and official statistics. Our analyses revealed progressive improvement the longer patients were in treatment--impressively strong among patients in psychoanalysis--on self-rating measures of symptom distress and morale. Improvement, however, was equally weak in both groups on a self-rating measure of social relations. Dosage factors (treatment duration and session frequency in combination) partly accounted for the outcome differences between those referred to psychoanalysis and those referred to long-term psychotherapy. Attitudes and ideals among therapists and analysts concerning the goals and means of psychotherapy were also associated with patient outcome, although in rather complex ways. A significant part of the outcome differences between patients in psychoanalysis and in psychotherapy could be explained by the adoption, in a large group of therapists, of orthodox psychoanalytic attitudes that seemed to be counterproductive in the practice of psychotherapy but not in psychoanalysis. It is suggested that this effect may be a negative transfer of the psychoanalytic stance into psychotherapeutic practice and that this may be especially pronounced when the attitudes are not backed up by psychoanalytic training.

Comparison of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography and gas chromatography--mass spectrometry for the characterization of complex hydrocarbon mixtures

In this paper, we compare the current separation power of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GCxGC) with the potential separation power of GC-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) systems. Using simulated data, we may envisage a GC-MS contour plot, that can be compared with a GCxGC chromatogram. Real examples are used to demonstrate the current potential of the two techniques in the field of hydrocarbon analysis. As a separation technique for complex hydrocarbon mixtures, GCxGC is currently about as powerful as GC-MS is potentially powerful. GC-MS has not reached its potential separation power in this area, because a universal, soft ionization method does not exist. The greatest advantage of GCxGC is, however, its potential for quantitative analysis. Because flame-ionisation detection can be used, quantitative analysis by GCxGC is much more robust, reliable and reproducible.

[Newly discovered human retroviruses. Association with disease is still undetermined]

Retroviruses are enveloped RNA viruses which can transcribe RNA to DNA and integrate into the chromosomal DNA of their host cell. Heritable integrations give rise to endogenous retroviral sequences (ERVs). The rest is exogenous, infecting from individual to individual. This survey highlights an emerging scenario in human retrovirology. Humans have thousands of distinct ERVs. Although most are damaged by mutations, many are expressed as RNA, a few also as proteins and viral particles. The latter are not known to be infectious. Obviously, human ancestors encountered many different exogenous retroviruses, some of which may still be extant. In fact, an exogenous retrovirus related to ERVs was recently discovered. It is the fifth human exogenous retrovirus, human retrovirus 5 (HRV-5). It succeeds the two human T-lymphotropic viruses (HTLVs) and the two human immunodeficiency viruses (HIVs). The newly discovered endogenous and exogenous human retroviruses are now being investigated for association with disease. There are indications of selective ERV activation in multiple sclerosis, schizophrenia and seminoma. HRV-5 has been associated with rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is not yet known whether these first observations signal a pathogenic role for the newly discovered retroviruses.

Structural prerequisites for intersubtype B and D antigenicity of the third variable envelope region (V3) of human immunodeficiency virus type 1

To elucidate the structural requirements for intersubtype antigenicity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) third variable envelope region (V3), synthetic peptides were used in enzyme immunoassays (EIAs) with serum samples from persons with proven or probable subtype B and D infections. Mathematical analyses of results from EIAs with singly substituted V3 peptides revealed important residues determining overall N-terminal V3 peptide antigenicity. This information was used to design V3 immunogens, rabbit antiserum to which were tested in EIA and for in vitro neutralization of molecular clones of HIV-1(MN) and HIV-1(MAL). Intersubtype-reactive epitopes were distributed toward the N-terminal half of the V3 loop. Lysine at position 310, arginine at position 311, and isoleucine at position 314, all derived from the MN primary sequence, were major determinants of intersubtype V3 antigenicity. Combinations of residues that enhanced antigenicity often contained lysine at position 310. Threonine at position 308 was common in the least advantageous combinations. V3 immunogens modified to achieve optimal antigenicity induced antiserum with augmented cross-neutralization of virus from MAL and MN molecular clones, suggesting one approach to subunit vaccine development.

Human retrovirus 5 sequences in peripheral blood cells of patients with B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma

A recently described sequence from a probable 5th human exogenous retrovirus, HRV-5, is related to type A, B and D retroviruses. It was initially detected in a salivary gland biopsy from a patient with Sjögren's syndrome, but it is not consistently associated with this disease. We searched for the HRV-5 sequence in DNA extracted from whole blood of 300 blood donors, 81 patients with hematological malignancy and 21 patients with neurological disease using PCR. While samples from none of the blood donors and the neurological patients became positive, 3 of the 81 patients with hematological malignancy were HRV-5 DNA positive. All 3 had B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of low grade. The difference in frequency between NHL and controls is statistically significant. HRV-5 DNA was found in DNA from whole blood and in plastic-adherent cells but not in tumor cell DNA. Thus, monocytes/macrophages may be preferred targets for HRV-5. Our result, together with a previous finding of HRV-5 DNA in 2 NHL cases, is compatible with an association between HRV-5 and NHL, whether causal or not.

Comparative studies on neutralisation of primary HIV-1 isolates by human sera and rabbit anti-V3 peptide sera

IgG binding to V3 peptides and serum neutralising responses were studied in four HIV-1 infected individuals with progressive disease over a period of 31-70 months. The 18-20 mer peptides comprised residues 299-317 (numbering of HIV1 MN) in the N-terminal half of the V3 loop of the envelope glycoprotein gp120 and were derived from the sequences of autologous, as well as heterologous isolates. All four individuals studied lacked anti-V3 IgG binding to at least one autologous V3 sequence. V3 peptides to which autologous sera lacked binding IgG were all immunogenic in rabbits and induced antisera that were broadly cross-reactive by EIA and broadly cross-neutralising to primary HIV-1 isolates. This indicates that the peptides are immunogenic per se and that the respective human hosts have selective defects in recognising the corresponding V3 sequences. Despite the absence of antibody binding to autologous V3 peptides, the human sera had neutralising antibodies to autologous (three out of four cases), as well as heterologous isolates (all cases). Moreover, in vitro exposure of the patients' isolates to autologous neutralising serum or the homologous rabbit antiserum selected for variants with amino acid substitutions close to the crown of the V3 loop or in regions outside the sequence corresponding to peptides used for immunisation. The amino acid exchanges affected V3 positions known to be antigenic and which are also prone to change successively in infected persons. It is likely that neutralising antibodies recognise both linear and conformational epitopes in the V3 loop. Apparently, there are several, but restricted, numbers of ways for this structure to change its conformation and thereby give rise to neutralisation resistant viruses.

Development of an on-line coupling of liquid-liquid extraction, normal-phase liquid chromatography and high-resolution gas chromatography producing an analytical marker for the prediction of mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of bitumen and bitumen fumes

A fast and fully automated system for the determination of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) is described. The system has been developed to produce an analytical 'marker', correlating chemical characteristics (including PAC analysis) with mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. The products of interest are bitumen fumes, bitumen and other (heavy or even residual) oil products, regardless of their boiling range. Dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) extractables obtained from a flow-injection analysis (FIA) system are introduced on-line in a normal-phase liquid chromatographic (NPLC) system. Here, the PACs are separated from the DMSO and possible co-extracted heavy residual species. The final step incorporates on-line gas chromatographic analysis of the three-to-six-ring PAC fraction, followed by flame-ionisation detection for quantification. It was demonstrated that data obtained from samples in the distillate lubrication-oil range correlate well with data obtained from the manual DMSO-extraction method standardised by the Institute of Petroleum as IP346.

A novel serological technique: polymerase chain reaction enhanced immunoassay. Application to enterovirus IgM diagnosis

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method is a sensitive, specific and rapid technique for virus detection. The principles of a PCR enhanced immunoassay (PIA) are described. The method combines solid phase serological techniques with the PCR, providing a versatile and sensitive method for antibody detection. By linking the antigenicity of virus particles with their content of nucleic acid, the method provides new possibilities for virus serology: for example, antibody specificity can be coupled to viral sequence in patients with chronic infections caused by highly variable viruses such as HIV and HCV. An application of the PIA technique is described for the detection of anti-enterovirus IgM. IgM is captured to anti-human IgM-coated microwell plates. The anti-enterovirus IgM is allowed to bind crude enterovirus antigen. Bound virus is heat denatured and the released RNA is used as a template for reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) amplification. Amplicons are detected by hybridisation to an affinity labelled probe in a microwell colorimetric assay. In a pilot study, 18 serum specimens from patients with enterovirus infections were examined. Using a mixture of ten crude enterovirus antigens, the frequency of IgM positivity was 6/18 (33%). Titres between 1/500 and 1/100,000 were recorded. Predominantly type-specific antibodies were detected. The results were compared with a procapsid enterovirus radioimmunoassay (RIA). After further optimisation, the PIA has the potential to be a clinically useful assay for the detection of antiviral antibodies.

Isolation of a human endogenous retroviral HERV-H element with an open env reading frame

About 100 elements of the human endogenous retroviral HERV-H family have full-length env genes potentially coding for Env proteins with sequences highly similar to the immunosuppressive peptide CKS-17 from the MLV transmembrane protein p15E. However, previously sequenced HERV-H env genes have contained stop codons or framehifts. To isolate elements with open env reading frames, we first tried to assess the diversity of HERV-H env genes by comparing PCR-generated env sequences from genomic DNA with published HERV-H sequences. A region at the beginning of env displayed a similarity of 84-98% among 15 different elements. We then used a probe from one of the PCR-generated clones, 98% similar to the consensus sequence in this region, to screen a human genomic lambda library. Three HERV-H elements displaying ca. 98% identity in the env gene were isolated and were shown to have integrated relatively recently, after the divergence of the orangutan and the african great ape lineages. One of these elements, HERV-H19, had a 1752-bp open env reading frame, producing a 77-kDa Env protein in in vitro translation reactions. This is the first demonstration of a coding competent member of the HERV-H family. These findings raise the possibility that HERV-H Env proteins may play a biological role in human cells.

Characterization of human MMTV-like (HML) elements similar to a sequence that was highly expressed in a human breast cancer: further definition of the HML-6 group

Previously, we found a retroviral sequence, HML-6.2BC1, to be expressed at high levels in a multifocal ductal breast cancer from a 41-year-old woman who also developed ovarian carcinoma. The sequence of a human genomic clone (HML-6.28) selected by high-stringency hybridization with HML-6.2BC1 is reported here. It was 99% identical to HML-6.2BC1 and gave the same restriction fragments as total DNA. HML-6.28 is a 4.7-kb provirus with a 5'LTR, truncated in RT. Data from two similar genomic clones and sequences found in GenBank are also reported. Overlaps between them gave a rather complete picture of the HML-6.2BC1-like human endogenous retroviral elements. Work with somatic cell hybrids and FISH localized HML-6.28 to chromosome 6, band p21, close to the MHC region. The causal role of HML-6.28 in breast cancer remains unclear. Nevertheless, the ca. 20 Myr old HML-6 sequences enabled the definition of common and unique features of type A, B, and D (ABD) retroviruses. In Gag, HML-6 has no intervening sequences between matrix and capsid proteins, unlike extant exogenous ABD viruses, possibly an ancestral feature. Alignment of the dUTPase showed it to be present in all ABD viruses, but gave a phylogenetic tree different from trees made from other ABD genes, indicating a distinct phylogeny of dUTPase. A conserved 24-mer sequence in the amino terminus of some ABD envelope genes suggested a conserved function.

Diversity of human endogenous retrovirus class II-like sequences

Class II human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs), often referred to as mouse mammary tumour virus (MMTV)-like or HERV-K elements, have similarities to several animal infectious retroviruses. Single clones from each of nine class II HERV groups (NMWV 1 to NMWV 9), isolated from a human breast cancer cell genomic library, were sequenced over a 244 bp stretch of the conserved reverse transcriptase region. These sequences were aligned to related exogenous and endogenous retroviruses and a phylogenetic tree was constructed. Sequences with more than 80% identity were considered as members of one group and we report here that the class II HERV family consists of at least ten groups. Three of the sequenced clones, from groups NMWV 3, 7 and 9, could not be related to any other previously identified elements and constituted their own groups. NMWV 8 had no similarity to any retroviral sequences in the sequenced region and is so far considered to be non-retroviral.

Two domains of the Borna disease virus p40 protein are required for interaction with the p23 protein

Borna disease virus (BDV) has five major open reading frames, which encode the proteins p40, p23, gp18, p57 and p190. By analogy with other negative-strand RNA viruses, p40 is a putative nucleoprotein and p23 is a putative phosphoprotein. These proteins are known to form complexes with each other and with the polymerase protein in other viruses. In this paper, it is shown that BDV p40 and p23 can form complexes with each other in infected cells. Furthermore, the amino acids of p40 that are necessary for formation of this complex have been mapped.

Screening for human T cell leukaemia/lymphoma virus among blood donors in Sweden: cost effectiveness analysis

OBJECTIVE

To analyse the cost effectiveness of a national programme to screen blood donors for infection with the human T cell leukaemia/lymphoma virus.

DESIGN

Three models for calculating the costs and benefits of screening were developed. The first model analysed the cost of continuously testing all donations; the second analysed the cost of initially testing new blood donors and then retesting them after five years; the third analysed the cost of testing donors only at the time of their first donation. Patients who had received blood components from donors confirmed to be infected with the virus were offered testing.

SETTING

Sweden.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Prevalence of infection with the virus among blood donors, the risk of transmission of the virus, screening costs, and the outcome of infection.

RESULTS

648 497 donations were tested for the virus; 1625 samples tested positive by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. 6 were confirmed positive by western blotting. The prevalence of infection with the virus was 2/100 000 donors. 35 patients who had received blood infected with the virus were tested; 3 were positive. The cost of testing every donation was calculated to be $3.02m (1.88m pounds); this is 18 times higher than the cost of testing new donors only, and only 1 additional positive donor would be discovered in 7 years. Regardless of the model used, screening was estimated to prevent only 1 death every 200 years at a minimum cost of $36m (22.5m pounds).

CONCLUSION

Based on these estimates the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare decided that only new blood donors would be screened for infection with the virus.

Coamplification and dispersion of adjacent human endogenous retroviral HERV-H and HERV-E elements; presence of spliced hybrid transcripts in normal leukocytes

In an RT-PCR study of HERV-H spliced subgenomic transcripts, we found transcripts with HERV-H leader and protease-encoding sequences spliced to HERV-E integrase-encoding sequences in lymphocytes from healthy blood donors. In other cell types, including two T-cell leukemia cell lines, these transcripts were absent. The PCR fragments of the hybrid transcripts contained two open reading frames (ORFs). One was a hybrid HERV-H protease/HERV-E integrase ORF and the other was the HERV-E envelope surface glycoprotein ORF. Alternative splice products were also identified. The genomic DNA origin of the hybrid transcripts was shown to be a HERV-H element with a large 3'-end deletion, adjacent to a HERV-E element lacking the 5'-LTR. This hybrid structure was shown to be amplified and dispersed to six different human chromosomes. Thus, a relatively large part of full-length HERV-E elements (15-20%) is potentially under the transcriptional control of HERV-H LTRs. The HERV-H/HERV-E junction was present in multiple copies also in the chimpanzee and gorilla, but not in the orangutan or old world monkeys.