Remediation of sedimented fiber originating from pulp and paper industry: Laboratory scale anaerobic reactor studies and ideas of scaling up

Anaerobic treatment of sedimented fibers collected from bottom of a bay that had been receiving pulp and paper mill wastewater for about 70 years were studied for the first time in semi-continuously fed continuously stirred tank reactors (CSTR). Anaerobic treatment of the fiber sediment was shown to be feasible, without dilution and with nitrogen and buffer supplement, at organic loading rates (OLR) up to 2.5 kg VS/m³d and hydraulic retention times (HRT) of 60 d resulting in methane yields of 201 ± 18 L CH₄/kg VS. Co-digestion of sedimented fiber with sewage sludge at an OLR of 1.5 kg VS/m³d and HRT of 20 d resulted in a methane production of 246 ± 10 L CH₄/kg VS. The techno-economic feasibility of mono and co-digestion process together with several case dependent factors such as maximum operable OLR, digestate utilization needs to be evaluated before making further conclusions for larger scale remediation applications.

Anaerobic digestion of 30-100-year-old boreal lake sedimented fibre from the pulp industry: Extrapolating methane production potential to a practical scale

Since the 1980s, the pulp and paper industry in Finland has resulted in the accumulation of fibres in lake sediments. One such site in Lake Näsijärvi contains approximately 1.5 million m³ sedimented fibres. In this study, the methane production potential of the sedimented fibres (on average 13% total solids (TS)) was determined in batch assays. Furthermore, the methane production from solid (on average 20% TS) and liquid fractions of sedimented fibres after solid-liquid separation was studied. The sedimented fibres resulted in fast methane production and high methane yields of 250 ± 80 L CH₄/kg volatile solids (VS). The main part (ca. 90%) of the methane potential was obtained from the solid fraction of the sedimented fibres. In addition, the VS removal from the total and solid sedimented fibres was high, 61-65% and 63-78%, respectively. The liquid fraction also contained a large amount of organics (on average 8.8 g COD/L), treatment of which also has to be considered. The estimations of the methane production potentials in the case area showed potential up to 40 million m³ of methane from sedimented fibres.

Environmental variability and population dynamics: do European and North American ducks play by the same rules?

Density dependence, population regulation, and variability in population size are fundamental population processes, the manifestation and interrelationships of which are affected by environmental variability. However, there are surprisingly few empirical studies that distinguish the effect of environmental variability from the effects of population processes. We took advantage of a unique system, in which populations of the same duck species or close ecological counterparts live in highly variable (north American prairies) and in stable (north European lakes) environments, to distinguish the relative contributions of environmental variability (measured as between-year fluctuations in wetland numbers) and intraspecific interactions (density dependence) in driving population dynamics. We tested whether populations living in stable environments (in northern Europe) were more strongly governed by density dependence than populations living in variable environments (in North America). We also addressed whether relative population dynamical responses to environmental variability versus density corresponded to differences in life history strategies between dabbling (relatively "fast species" and governed by environmental variability) and diving (relatively "slow species" and governed by density) ducks. As expected, the variance component of population fluctuations caused by changes in breeding environments was greater in North America than in Europe. Contrary to expectations, however, populations in more stable environments were not less variable nor clearly more strongly density dependent than populations in highly variable environments. Also, contrary to expectations, populations of diving ducks were neither more stable nor stronger density dependent than populations of dabbling ducks, and the effect of environmental variability on population dynamics was greater in diving than in dabbling ducks. In general, irrespective of continent and species life history, environmental variability contributed more to variation in species abundances than did density. Our findings underscore the need for more studies on populations of the same species in different environments to verify the generality of current explanations about population dynamics and its association with species life history.

Anaerobic batch conversion of pine wood torrefaction condensate

Organic compound rich torrefaction condensate, owing to their high water content and acidic nature, have yet to be exploited for practical application. In this study, microbial conversion of torrefaction condensate from pine wood through anaerobic batch digestion (AD) to produce methane was evaluated. Torrefaction condensate exhibited high methane potentials in the range of 430-492mL/g volatile solids (VS) and 430-460mL/gVS under mesophilic and thermophilic conditions, respectively. Owing to the changes in the composition, the methane yields differed with the torrefaction condensates produced at different temperatures (225, 275 and 300°C), with a maximum of 492±18mL/gVS with the condensate produced at 300°C under mesophilic condition. The cyclic batch AD experiments showed that 0.1VS_substrate:VS_inoculum is optimum, whereas the higher substrate loading (0.2-0.5) resulted in a reversible inhibition of the methane production. The results suggest that torrefaction condensate could be practically valorized through AD.

The effect of low-temperature pretreatment on the solubilization and biomethane potential of microalgae biomass grown in synthetic and wastewater media

Microalgae have been suggested as a sustainable raw material for biofuel production in the form of methane via anaerobic digestion. Here, pretreatments at 60-80°C were investigated, aiming to study the impact of algae culture media on biomethane potential and pretreatment efficiency. Chlorella vulgaris and mixed culture of native algae species (dominating by Scenedesmus sp.) were grown in synthetic medium, wastewater (sterilized and non-sterilized) and digestate from anaerobic digestion of pulp and paper biosludge (sterilized and non-sterilized). The biomethane potential for native microalgal biomass varied between 154 and 252LCH₄kg^-1 VS depending on culture media. The efficiency of the low-temperature pretreatment (80°C, 3h) for solubilization (9-12%) of C. vulgaris and native algae biomass was similar for algae grown in sterilized and non-sterilized wastewater media. The pretreatment increased the biomethane potential of native algae biomass by 11-24%.

Use of laboratory anaerobic digesters to simulate the increase of treatment rate in full-scale high nitrogen content sewage sludge and co-digestion biogas plants

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of increasing feedstock treatment rate on the performance of full-scale anaerobic digestion using laboratory-scale reactors with digestate and feedstock from full-scale digesters. The studied nitrogen-containing feedstocks were i) a mixture of industrial by-products and pig slurry, and ii) municipal sewage sludge, which digestion was studied at 41 and 52°C, respectively. This study showed the successful reduction of hydraulic retention times from 25 and 20days to around 15days, which increased organic loading rates from 2 to 3.5kg volatile solids (VS)/m(3)d and 4 to 6kgVS/m(3)d. As a result, the optimum retention time in terms of methane production and VS removal was 10-15% lower than the initial in the full-scale digesters. Accumulation of acids during start-up of the co-digestion reactor was suggested to be connected to the high ammonium nitrogen concentration and intermediate temperature of 41°C.

Agronomic characteristics of five different urban waste digestates

The use of digestate in agriculture is an efficient way to recycle materials and to decrease the use of mineral fertilizers. The agronomic characteristics of the digestates can promote plant growth and soil properties after digestate fertilization but also harmful effects can arise due to digestate quality, e.g. pH, organic matter and heavy metal content. The objective of this study was to evaluate the differences and similarities in agronomic characteristics and the value of five urban waste digestates from different biogas plants treating either food waste, organic fraction of organic solid waste or a mixture of waste-activated sludge and vegetable waste. The digestate agronomic characteristics were studied with chemical analyses and the availability of nutrients was also assessed with growth experiments and soil mineralization tests. All studied urban digestates produced 5-30% higher ryegrass yields compared to a control mineral fertilizer with a similar inorganic nitrogen concentration, while the feedstock source affected the agronomic value. Food waste and organic fraction of municipal solid waste digestates were characterized by high agronomic value due to the availability of nutrients and low heavy metal load. Waste-activated sludge as part of the feedstock mixture, however, increased the heavy metal content and reduced nitrogen availability to the plant, thus reducing the fertilizer value of the digestate.

Mesophilic anaerobic digestion of pulp and paper industry biosludge-long-term reactor performance and effects of thermal pretreatment

The pulp and paper industry wastewater treatment processes produce large volumes of biosludge. Limited anaerobic degradation of lignocellulose has hindered the utilization of biosludge, but the processing of biosludge using anaerobic digestion has recently regained interest. In this study, biosludge was used as a sole substrate in long-term (400 d) mesophilic laboratory reactor trials. Nine biosludge batches collected evenly over a period of one year from a pulp and paper industry wastewater treatment plant had different solid and nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus, trace elements) characteristics. Nutrient characteristics may vary by a factor of 2-11, while biomethane potentials (BMPs) ranged from 89 to 102 NL CH4 kg(-1) VS between batches. The BMPs were enhanced by 39-88% with thermal pretreatments at 105-134 °C. Despite varying biosludge properties, stable operation was achieved in reactor trials with a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 14 d. Hydrolysis was the process limiting step, ceasing gas production when the HRT was shortened to 10 days. However, digestion with an HRT of 10 days was feasible after thermal pretreatment of the biosludge (20 min at 121 °C) due to enhanced hydrolysis. The methane yield was 78 NL CH4 kg(-1) VS for untreated biosludge and was increased by 77% (138 NL CH4 kg(-1) VS) after pretreatment.

Use of diluted urine for cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris

Our aim was to study the biomass growth of microalga Chlorella vulgaris using diluted human urine as a sole nutrient source. Batch cultivations (21 days) were conducted in five different urine dilutions (1:25-1:300), in 1:100-diluted urine as such and with added trace elements, and as a reference, in artificial growth medium. The highest biomass density was obtained in 1:100-diluted urine with and without additional trace elements (0.73 and 0.60 g L(-1), respectively). Similar biomass growth trends and densities were obtained with 1:25- and 1:300-diluted urine (0.52 vs. 0.48 gVSS L(-1)) indicating that urine at dilution 1:25 can be used to cultivate microalgal based biomass. Interestingly, even 1:300-diluted urine contained sufficiently nutrients and trace elements to support biomass growth. Biomass production was similar despite pH-variation from < 5 to 9 in different incubations indicating robustness of the biomass growth. Ammonium formation did not inhibit overall biomass growth. At the beginning of cultivation, the majority of the biomass consisted of living algal cells, while towards the end, their share decreased and the estimated share of bacteria and cell debris increased.

Cultivation of Nannochloropsis for eicosapentaenoic acid production in wastewaters of pulp and paper industry

The eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) containing marine microalga Nannochloropsis oculata was grown in an effluent from anaerobic digestion of excess activated sludge from a wastewater treatment plant serving a combination of a pulp and a paper mill and a municipality (digester effluent, DE), mixed with the effluent of the same wastewater treatment plant. The maximum specific growth rate and photosynthesis of N. oculata were similar in the DE medium and in artificial sea water medium (ASW) but after 7 days, algae grown in the DE medium contained seven times more triacylglycerols (TAGs) per cell than cells grown in ASW, indicating mild stress in the DE medium. However, the volumetric rate of EPA production was similar in the ASW and DE media. The results suggest that N. oculata could be used to produce EPA, utilizing the nutrients available after anaerobic digestion of excess activated sludge of a pulp and paper mill.

Long-term thermophilic mono-digestion of rendering wastes and co-digestion with potato pulp

In this study, mono-digestion of rendering wastes and co-digestion of rendering wastes with potato pulp were studied for the first time in continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) experiments at 55°C. Rendering wastes have high protein and lipid contents and are considered good substrates for methane production. However, accumulation of digestion intermediate products viz., volatile fatty acids (VFAs), long chain fatty acids (LCFAs) and ammonia nitrogen (NH4-N and/or free NH3) can cause process imbalance during the digestion. Mono-digestion of rendering wastes at an organic loading rate (OLR) of 1.5 kg volatile solids (VS)/m(3)d and hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 50 d was unstable and resulted in methane yields of 450 dm(3)/kg VS(fed). On the other hand, co-digestion of rendering wastes with potato pulp (60% wet weight, WW) at the same OLR and HRT improved the process stability and increased methane yields (500-680 dm(3)/kg VS(fed)). Thus, it can be concluded that co-digestion of rendering wastes with potato pulp could improve the process stability and methane yields from these difficult to treat industrial waste materials.

Influence of temperature and pretreatments on the anaerobic digestion of wastewater grown microalgae in a laboratory-scale accumulating-volume reactor

This laboratory-scale study investigated the performance of a low-cost anaerobic digester for microalgae. Low (∼2%) solids content wastewater-grown microalgal biomass (MB) was digested in an unmixed, accumulating-volume reactor (AVR) with solid and liquid separation that enabled a long solids retention time. AVRs (2 or 20 L) were operated at 20 °C, 37 °C or ambient temperature (8-21 °C), and the influence of two pretreatments - low-temperature thermal (50-57 °C) and freeze-thaw - on algal digestion were studied. The highest methane yield from untreated MB was in the 37 °C AVR with 225 L CH4 kg volatile solids (VS)(-1), compared with 180 L CH4 kg VS(-1)added in a conventional, 37 °C completely stirred tank reactor (CSTR), and 101 L CH4 kg VS(-1)added in the 20 °C AVR. Freeze-thaw and low-temperature thermal pretreatments promoted protein hydrolysis and increased methane yields by 32-50% at 20 °C, compared with untreated MB. Pretreatments also increased the mineralisation of nitrogen (41-57%) and phosphorus (76-84%) during digestion. MB digestion at ambient temperature was comparable with digestion at 20 °C, until temperature dropped below 16 °C.

Mesophilic and thermophilic anaerobic laboratory-scale digestion of Nannochloropsis microalga residues

This paper studies methane production using a marine microalga, Nannochloropsis sp. residue from biodiesel production. Residue cake from Nannochloropsis, oils wet-extracted, had a methane potential of 482LCH4kg(-1) volatile solids (VS) in batch assays. However, when dry-extracted, the methane potential of residue cake was only 194LCH4kg(-1) VS. In semi-continuous reactor trials with dry-extracted residue cake, a thermophilic reactor produced 48% higher methane yield (220LCH4kg(-1)VS) than a mesophilic reactor (149LCH4kg(-1)VS). The thermophilic reactor was apparently inhibited due to ammonia with organic loading rate (OLR) of 2kgVSm(-3)d(-1) (hydraulic retention time (HRT) 46d), whereas the mesophilic reactor performed with OLR of 3kgVSm(-3)d(-1) (HRT 30d). Algal salt content did not inhibit digestion. Additional methane (18-33% of primary digester yield) was produced during 100d post-digestion.

Anaerobic digestion of autoclaved and untreated food waste

Anaerobic digestion of autoclaved (160°C, 6.2 bar) and untreated source segregated food waste (FW) was compared over 473 days in semi-continuously fed mesophilic reactors with trace elements supplementation, at organic loading rates (OLRs) of 2, 3, 4 and 6 kg volatile solids(VS)/m(3)d. Methane yields at all OLR were 5-10% higher for untreated FW (maximum 0.483±0.013 m(3) CH4/kg VS at 3 kg VS/m(3) d) than autoclaved FW (maximum 0.439±0.020 m(3) CH4/kg VS at 4 kg VS/m(3) d). The residual methane potential of both digestates at all OLRs was less than 0.110 m(3) CH4/kg VS, indicating efficient methanation in all cases. Use of acclimated inoculum allowed very rapid increases in OLR. Reactors fed on autoclaved FW showed lower ammonium and hydrogen sulphide concentrations, probably due to reduced protein hydrolysis as a result of formation of Maillard compounds. In the current study this reduced biodegradability appears to outweigh any benefit due to thermal hydrolysis of ligno-cellulosic components.

Determination of waste decay rate for a large Finnish landfill by calibrating methane generation models on the basis of methane recovery and emissions

The aim of this study was to determine the methane (CH(4)) generation factor (k) and CH(4) generation potential (L) for bulk waste in order to calibrate a CH(4) generation model (USEPA Landgem 3.02) and provide information on the remaining CH(4) generation potential in a large (54 ha) municipal solid waste landfill located in a boreal climate. The CH(4) generation model was calibrated by actual CH(4) recovery and emission measurement data. Moreover, waste characterisation information from a previous study was considered.The appropriate k for bulk waste was 0.18 in the studied landfill, which indicated a higher rate of degradation than proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as a default k value of 0.09 for wet conditions in boreal and temperate climes, whereas the calibrated L of 100 m(3)/t was lower than estimated on the basis of a previous waste characterisation study. The results demonstrate the importance of model calibration, as inappropriate model parameters may result in a large discrepancy (approximately 100 % or 119 million m(3) having an energy equivalent of nearly 1.2 TWh) in cumulative CH(4) generation estimates within a 18-year timescale (2012–30) at the studied landfill.

Screening of novel plants for biogas production in northern conditions

The objective of this study was to screen nine annual or perennial novel plants for biogas production cultivated in years 2007-2010 in Finland. The most promising novel plants for biogas production were found to be brown knapweed, giant goldenrod and Japanese millet producing 14-27 t total solids/ha and 4000-6100 Nm(3)CH4/ha. The specific methane yields of all studied plants varied from 170 to 381 Nm(3)CH4/t volatile solids (VS), depending on harvest time and plant species. Co-digestion of brown knapweed with cow manure in continuously stirred tank reactor was investigated and the highest methane yield was 254 NL CH4/kg VS, when the share of brown knapweed was 50% in the feed VS (organic loading rate (OLR) 2 kg VS/m(3)/d). The cultivation managements and sustainability of novel plants for biogas production have to be investigated.

Thermophilic anaerobic digestion of pulp and paper mill primary sludge and co-digestion of primary and secondary sludge

Anaerobic digestion of pulp and paper mill primary sludge and co-digestion of primary and secondary sludge were studied for the first time in semi-continuously fed continuously stirred tank reactors (CSTR) in thermophilic conditions. Additionally, in batch experiments, methane potentials of 210 and 230 m³CH₄/t volatile solids (VS)(added) were obtained for primary, and 50 and 100 m³CH₄/tVS(added) for secondary sludge at 35 °C and 55 °C, respectively. Anaerobic digestion of primary sludge was shown to be feasible with organic loading rates (OLR) of 1-1.4 kgVS/m³d and hydraulic retention times (HRT) of 16-32 d resulting in methane yields of 190-240 m³CH₄/tVS(fed). Also the highest tested OLR of 2 kgVS/m³d and the shortest HRT of 14-16 d could be feasible, if pH stability is confirmed. Co-digestion of primary and secondary sludge with an OLR of 1 kgVS/m³d and HRTs of 25-31 d resulted in methane yields of 150-170 m³CH₄/tVS(fed). In the digestion processes, cellulose and hemicellulose degraded while lignin did not. pH adjustment and nitrogen deficiency needs to be considered when planning anaerobic digestion of pulp and paper mill wastewater sludges.

Effect of additives on process stability of mesophilic anaerobic monodigestion of pig slaughterhouse waste

The effect of two additives on anaerobic monodigestion of pig slaughterhouse waste was studied in three laboratory scale continuously stirred tank reactors (CSTRs) operated for 242-284 days at 35°C. A higher organic loading rate (OLR), namely 2.25 kg volatile solids (VS)/m(3)d with a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 30 d was feasible with an additive containing Fe, HCl and trace elements while an OLR of 1.5 kg VS/m(3)d (HRT 30 d) led to instabilities in CSTR with an additive consisting of Fe and HCl and in CSTR without additives. Methane yields of ca. 700 dm(3) CH(4)/kg VS(fed) were obtained in all reactors under stable conditions. Both additives decreased H(2)S concentration of the biogas below detection limit 0.5 ppm while in a control reactor H(2)S concentration was up to 1900 ppm. In conclusion, the results suggest the possibility that additives may facilitate higher OLRs in monodigestion of pig slaughterhouse waste.

Toxicity of waste gasification bottom ash leachate

Toxicity of waste gasification bottom ash leachate from landfill lysimeters (112 m(3)) was studied over three years. The leachate of grate incineration bottom ash from a parallel setup was used as reference material. Three aquatic organisms (bioluminescent bacteria, green algae and water flea) were used to study acute toxicity. In addition, an ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) assay was performed with mouse hepatoma cells to indicate the presence of organic contaminants. Concentrations of 14 elements and 15 PAH compounds were determined to characterise leachate. Gasification ash leachate had a high pH (9.2-12.4) and assays with and without pH adjustment to neutral were used. Gasification ash leachate was acutely toxic (EC(50) 0.09-62 vol-%) in all assays except in the algae assay with pH adjustment. The gasification ash toxicity lasted the entire study period and was at maximum after two years of disposal both in water flea (EC(50) 0.09 vol-%) and in algae assays (EC(50) 7.5 vol-%). The grate ash leachate showed decreasing toxicity during the first two years of disposal in water flea and algae assays, which then tapered off. Both in the grate ash and in the gasification ash leachates EROD-activity increased during the first two years of disposal and then tapered off, the highest inductions were observed with the gasification ash leachate. The higher toxicity of the gasification ash leachate was probably related to direct and indirect effects of high pH and to lower levels of TOC and DOC compared to the grate ash leachate. The grate ash leachate toxicity was similar to that previously reported in literature, therefore, confirming that used setup was both comparable and reliable.

Leachate formation and characteristics from gasification and grate incineration bottom ash under landfill conditions

Characteristics and formation of leachates from waste gasification and grate firing bottom ash were studied using continuous field measurements from 112 m(3) lysimeters embedded into landfill body for three years. In addition, the total element concentrations of the fresh ash were analysed and laboratory batch tests were performed to study leachate composition. The three-year continuous flow measurement showed that about one fifth of the leachates were formed, when the flow rate was >200 l/d, covering <3.5% of the study time. After three years, the liquid/solid-ratio for the quenched grate ash was 1 (l/kg (d.m.)) and for the initially dry gasification ash 0.4 (l/kg (d.m.)). The low initial water and residual carbon content of the gasification ash kept the leachate pH at a high level (>13) major part of the study. In the grate ash leachate pH was lower (<8) due to the presence of organic carbon and biodegradation indicated by biological oxygen demand and redox potential measurements. In the gasification ash the high pH probably delayed leaching of major elements such as Ca, therefore, raising the need for a longer after-care period. The high pH also explains the higher leaching of As from the gasification ash compared to the grate ash both in the batch test and under landfill conditions.