Nursing students' perceptions of their first mental health placement

The way in which the theory and practice of mental health nursing is presented to students is of particular importance, especially at a time when recruitment into the profession is falling. This study sought to examine how nursing students experience their first mental health placement. A pre-/post-test design was used with a standardized instrument (Attitude Towards Psychiatry questionnaire) to assess the influence of their mental health placements on nursing students' attitudes towards mental health nurses, mental health nursing practice and education and theoretical aspects of mental health nursing. Results suggest that the placements were effective in improving students' regard in each of these areas. Though no generalizable conclusions can be inferred from this study some interesting insights are provided by nursing students into their perceptions of current mental health nursing practice.

Identification of Enterobacteriaceae bacteria by direct matrix-assisted laser desorptiom/ionization mass spectrometric analysis of whole cells

Several members of Enterobacteriaceas were analyzed by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOFMS). Characteristic mass spectral peaks and patterns were observed in the mass range of 2 to 20 kDa. The mass peaks reported to be reproducibly observed by previous researchers, which were claimed to serve as species/strain-specific biomarkers, are consistently observed in our current study. Despite the high degree of similarity found in the MALDI mass spectra within the enteric bacteria, minor yet notable differences existed to allow their differentiation. Five spectral peaks at m/z 4364, 5380, 6384, 6856, and 9540, generated reproducibly for each genus studied here, are assigned as family-specific biomarkers for the Family Enterobacteriaceae. The mass peaks at m/z 7324, 7724, 9136, and 9253 are assigned as genus-specific biomarkers for Salmonella. Some unique biomarkers characterizing the species and strains of E. coli are also presented.

Describing traumatic responses and distress of community residents directly and indirectly exposed to an aircraft crash

This study described the traumatic responses and the extent of psychological distress among residents who had been exposed directly or indirectly to an aircraft crash in Coventry, U.K. The direct exposure group consisted of 62 residents who were on the housing estate at the time of the accident and 20 who were not. They were interviewed on their subjective responses to the crash and then asked to fill in two distress measures: the Impact of Event Scale (IES) and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ). The results showed a contrast between the responses of the two groups at the time of the crash. They also showed that the direct exposure group had a significantly higher score in the IES item of avoidance, the IES total, the GHQ items of somatization, social dysfunction, and the total score than the indirect exposure group had. Associations were then made between subjective responses and distress measures. Stepwise multiple regression analyses showed that for the direct exposure residents, the IES total was predicted by "whether they received professional help" and "whether they were worried about their safety after the crash." The GHQ total of the direct exposure residents was predicted by "anger about what had happened to them." For the indirect exposure residents, the IES total was predicted by "their present feelings when they heard planes flying over." There were no predictions found between responses and the GHQ total.

A follow-up study of mentally disordered offenders after a court diversion scheme: six-month and one-year comparison

The aim of this study was to investigate offenders' living patterns, quality of life, types of aftercare received and psychological well-being, following their diversion from one court diversion scheme in England. Sixty-five offenders were followed up after six months, 22 of whom were also followed up after one year. Their transient living patterns throughout these two periods were described. Their quality of life was found to be poor in that most did not have an occupation, nor did they receive education, and the life experiences during both periods were lower than that of standardized urban samples. There were no significant changes in their poor life experiences over the two periods. Over 55% of the 22 offenders still contacted their GPs regularly but there was a significant drop in those consulting hospital doctors. Only a small number of offenders had contact with the social services in these two periods and no significant differences were found between them. Their GHQ total scores went above cutoff point and the level of psychiatric conditions was similar in both periods.

A description of a forensic diversion service in one city in the United Kingdom

This paper describes some recent research on forensic diversion services and the application of such services in Birmingham, UK. Key components include the diversion scheme in court, diversion at point of arrest, and the remand prison liaison scheme. Various community facilities, such as a specialized bail hostel and landlady schemes to which offenders are possibly referred, are also briefly described. We advocate the need for further research in order to examine the effectiveness of the services in Birmingham.

Longitudinal changes in adaptive behavior in adults with Down syndrome: interim findings from a longitudinal study

Age-related changes in adaptive behavior have been established in adults with Down syndrome. However, most studies have been cross-sectional, without controls for cohort and survival effects. We examined underlying factors for age-related decline in adaptive behavior in 128 adults with trisomy 21 over a 3-year period. Presence of dementia was the only determining factor, although the difference in trend over time as compared to subjects without dementia was not significant. No association between gender, sensory loss, severity of mental retardation, or place of residence was found. For subjects with no significant medical disorder (physical or psychological), no decline was seen. This longitudinal study confirms previously reported findings.

The burnout of nursing staff working with challenging behaviour clients in hospital-based bungalows and a community unit

The aim of this pilot study was to compare the burnout of nursing staff who worked with clients who displayed challenging behaviour in hospital-based bungalows and a community unit. Twenty-six and 12 nursing staff were randomly chosen from four hospital-based bungalows and a community unit. Staff assessed their clients' behaviour, using the Aberrant Behavior Checklist and were later interviewed, using a self-constructed Staff Questionnaire and the Maslach Burnout Inventory. The results showed that clients in the hospital-based bungalows were more severe in challenging behaviour than those in the community unit. The staff in the hospital-based bungalows were less satisfied with their salaries and enjoyed less their contact with clients. They complained more than the community unit staff and felt that their present training was inadequate. They were also more emotionally exhausted and experienced more depersonalization towards clients than the community unit staff. The level of personal accomplishment was, however, similar in the two groups. Correlations showed that there were significant associations between staff burnout and management issues rather than clients' behaviour, particularly in the hospital-based bungalow group.

Genomic structure of a potassium channel toxin from Heteractis magnifica

We provide information on the gene encoding the K+ channel toxin, HmK, of the sea anemone Heteractis magnifica. A series of DNA amplifications by PCR, which included the amplification of the 5'-untranslated region of the gene, showed that an intron of 402 nucleotides separated the sequence that encodes the matured toxin from the signal peptide sequence. A second 264 nucleotide intron interrupted the 5'-untranslated region of the previously reported HmK cDNA. Two possible transcription-initiation sites were identified by primer extension analysis. Corresponding TATA-box consensus sequences, characteristic of a promoter region, were also located from PCR products of uncloned libraries of adaptor-ligated genomic DNA fragments. The coding region for matured HmK is intronless. The same is also true for other sea anemone toxins reported thus far. More notably, a similar intron-exon organization is present in other ion channel-blocking toxins from scorpions implying that molecules having similar functions share a similar organization at the genomic level suggesting a common path of evolution.

Synthesis and in vitro evaluation of potential antichagasic dipeptide prodrugs of primaquine

American trypanosomiasis (Chagas' disease) is an endemic parasitic disease afflicting more than 20 million people in Latin America. Currently, therapy is unsatisfactory and only two drugs are available. Primaquine, an antimalarial drug, has trypanocidal activity. Dipeptide derivatives of primaquine, Phe-Arg-PQ, Lys-Arg-PQ, and Phe-Ala-PQ, were synthesized. The choice of the peptides was based on the primary specificity of cruzipain, the major cysteine proteinase from T cruzi. The prodrugs obtained were tested on the LLC-MK2 cell culture infected with trypomastigotes forms of T. cruzi. Phe-Arg-PQ, Lys-Arg-PQ, and Phe-Ala-PQ were active in all stages.

A new potassium channel toxin from the sea anemone Heteractis magnifica: isolation, cDNA cloning, and functional expression

A new potassium channel toxin, HmK, has been isolated from the sea anemone Heteractis magnifica. It inhibits the binding of [125I]-alpha-dendrotoxin (a ligand for voltage-gated K channels) to rat brain synaptosomal membranes with a Ki of about 1 nM, blocks K+ currents through Kv 1.2 channels expressed in a mammalian cell line, and facilitates acetylcholine release at the avian neuromuscular junction. HmK comprises of 35 amino acids (Mr 4055) with the sequence R1TCKDLIPVS10ECTDIRCRTS20MKYRLNLCRK30TCGSC35. A full assignment of the disulfide linkages was made by using partial reduction with tri(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP) at acid pH and rapid alkylation with iodoacetamide. The disulfide bridges were identified as Cys3-Cys35, Cys12-Cys28, and Cys17-Cys32. A cDNA clone encoding HmK was isolated using RT-PCR from the total RNA obtained from sea anemone tentacles, while the 5'- and 3'-flanking regions of the cDNA were amplified by RACE. The full-length cDNA was 563 bp long and contained a sequence encoding a signal peptide of 39 amino acids. The coding region for matured HmK toxin was cloned and expressed as a glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion product in the cytoplasm of Escherichia coli. After affinity purification and cleavage, the recombinant toxin was shown to be identical to native HmK in its N-terminal sequence, chromatographic behavior, and binding to dendrotoxin binding sites on rat brain membranes.

Rabbit ubiquitin-activating enzyme E1: cDNA cloning, sequence and expression

A cDNA clone encoding ubiquitin-activating enzyme E1 has been isolated from a rabbit heart cDNA library and sequenced. The 3.485 kb cDNA contains an open reading frame of 1058 amino acid residues which predicts a protein of approx. 118 kDa. The deduced protein sequence exhibits a very high homology to other ubiquitin-activating enzymes identified in a variety of organisms. Northern blot analysis reveals a single transcript of approx. 3.5 kb in all the rabbit tissues examined. The entire coding region of the rabbit E1 cDNA has been expressed as a his-tagged protein. The recombinant protein has been verified by its ability to cross-react with anti-human E1 antibodies. Ubiquitin thiolester assay shows that the recombinant rabbit E1 protein is functional.

Proteolytic specificity of rhodostoxin, the major hemorrhagin of Calloselasma rhodostoma (Malayan pit viper) venom

The proteolytic specificity of rhodostoxin, the major hemorrhagin from Calloselasma rhodostoma (Malayan pit viper) venom was investigated using oxidized B-chain of bovine insulin as substrate. Six peptide bonds were cleaved: Ser9-Hist10, His10-Leu11, Ala14-Leu15, Tyr16-Leu17, Gly20-Glu21 and Phe24-Phe25. Deglycosylated rhodostoxin, however, cleaved primarily at Arg22-Gly23.

MR566A and MR566B, new melanin synthesis inhibitors produced by Trichoderma harzianum. II. Physico-chemical properties and structural elucidation

New melanin synthesis inhibitors (MR566A and B) and six related known isocyanocyclopentenes were isolated from the fermentation broth of Trichoderma harzianum, and their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods. The structures of novel isocyanides, MR566A (1) and B (2), were elucidated as 1-(3-chloro-1,2-dihydroxy-4-isocyano-4-cyclopenten-1-yl)etha nol, 1-(1,2,3-trihydroxy-3-isocyano-4-cyclopenten-1-yl)ethanol, respectively. The structure of novel oxazole, MR93B (9), was elucidated as 4-[(1Z)-3-hydroxy-2-hydroxymethyl-1-propen-1-yl]oxazole.

MR566A and MR566B, new melanin synthesis inhibitors produced by Trichoderma harzianum. I. Taxonomy, fermentation, isolation and biological activities

New melanin synthesis inhibitors (MR566A and B) and six related known isocyanocyclopentenes were isolated from the fermentation broth of Trichoderma harzianum. The IC50 values of MR566A and B against mushroom tyrosinase were 1.72 and 47 microM, respectively. They inhibited melanin biosynthesis in B16 melanoma cells with MIC values of 0.1 and 2.2 microM, respectively. Also isolated from the same culture extract of T. harzianum was a new oxazole (MR93B), which showed no inhibitory activity against mushroom tyrosinase at a concentration of 1,000 microg/ml.

Adrenergic and nitrergic responses of the rat isolated anococcygeus muscle to a new toxin (makatoxin I) from the venom of the scorpion Buthus martensi Karsch

1. Makatoxin I (MkTx I) is a new toxin purified from the venom of the scorpion Buthus martensi Karsch. Contractile (excitatory, adrenergic) and relaxant (inhibitory, nitrergic) responses of the rat isolated anococcygeus muscle (Acm) to MkTx I were investigated. 2. MkTx I (0.28 microM) produced a rapid and very marked rise in the tone of the Acm which then gradually wanted to the control baseline. Phentolamine (5 microM), guanethidine (5 microM), tetrodotoxin (2 microM) and reserpine pretreatment in vivo (5 mg kg-1 s.c. at 24 hr and 5 mg kg-1 i.p. at 3 h) completely blocked the contractile responses of the Acm to MkTx I. The responses to noradrenaline (NA) were blocked by phentolamine, but were potentiated by guanethidine. 3. MkTx I (0.28 microM) also marked and rapidly relaxed the tone of the carbachol (CCh; 3 microM), precontracted Acm. The addition of sodium nitroprusside (SNP; 1 microM) also produced a marked and rapid relaxation of the Acm. TTx (2 microM) or NG-nitro-L-arginine methylester (L-NAME, 50 microM) markedly inhibited the relaxant responses of the Acm to field stimulation (FS) as well as to MkTx I, but not the responses to SNP. 4. Therefore, the contractile responses of the rat anococcygeus muscle to MkTx I can be attributed to the release of transmitter NA on postjunctional alpha-adrenoceptors, whereas the relaxant responses of the Acm to MkTx I involve the release of nitric oxide as the neurotransmitter which, presumably, results in the activation of the enzyme guanylate cyclase leading to relaxation of the muscle.

Makatoxin I, a novel toxin isolated from the venom of the scorpion Buthus martensi Karsch, exhibits nitrergic actions

Buthus martensi Karsch venom exhibits nitrergic action in rat anococcygeus muscle (ACM). We have purified a novel toxin, makatoxin I (MkTx I), which exhibits nitrergic action, to homogeneity from this venom by a combination of gel-filtration, cation-exchange chromatography, and reverse-phase chromatography. Its purity was assessed by capillary electrophoresis and mass spectrometry. Its molecular weight was found to be 7031.71 +/- 2.88 as calculated from electrospray mass spectrographic data. The complete amino acid sequence was elucidated by sequencing of reduced and S-pyridylethylated toxin and a carboxyl-terminal peptide, P55-64, generated by the cleavage of toxin with endoproteinase Lys-C. The complete sequence of MkTx I is GRDAYIADSENCTYTCALNPYCNDLCTKNGAKSGYCQWAGRYGNACWCIDLPDKVPIRISGSCR. This toxin is composed of 64 amino acid residues and contains 8 half-cystine residues. Structurally, MkTx I has high similarity to Bot I and Bot II when compared with toxins from other scorpion species. The effects of MkTx I on nitrergic responses were investigated using the rat isolated ACM mounted in Krebs solution (37 degrees C, 5% CO2 in O2). MkTx I (2 microg/ml) markedly relaxed the carbachol-precontracted ACM; the relaxation was inhibited by the stereoselective inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, Nomega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (50 microM). Thus, MkTx I is the first alpha-toxin that can mediate nitrergic responses in the rat isolated ACM.

Cloning, characterization and expression of a cDNA clone encoding rabbit ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, E2(32k)

A cDNA clone encoding rabbit E2(32k) was obtained by library screening and PCR. The cDNA contains an open reading frame coding for 238 amino acids which shows an overall identity of 81% to human CDC34, the cell cycle-related ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme. A 50% homology to yeast CDC34 within the conserved core domain was also observed. Northern blot analysis indicated that three transcripts existed in all six rabbit tissues examined but their expression levels varied over a wide range. The putative cDNA coding region was highly expressed in Escherichia coli as a his-tagged protein which was purified to homogeneity. The ability of this expressed protein to form a thiolester bond with ubiquitin showed that it was functionally active. The ability of this protein to catalyze the conjugation of ubiquitin to histone H2A and H2B was also examined.

Complete amino acid sequence of an acidic, cardiotoxic phospholipase A2 from the venom of Ophiophagus hannah (King Cobra): a novel cobra venom enzyme with "pancreatic loop"

A phospholipase A2 (OHV A-PLA2) from the venom of Ophiophagus hannah (King cobra) is an acidic protein exhibiting cardiotoxicity, myotoxicity, and antiplatelet activity. The complete amino acid sequence of OHV A-PLA2 has been determined using a combination of Edman degradation and mass spectrometric techniques. OHV A-PLA2 is composed of a single chain of 124 amino acid residues with 14 cysteines and a calculated molecular weight of 13719 Da. It contains the loop of residues (62-66) found in pancreatic PLA2s and hence belongs to class IB enzymes. This pancreatic loop is between two proline residues (Pro 59 and Pro 68) and contains several hydrophilic amino acids (Ser and Asp). This region has high degree of conformational flexibility and is on the surface of the molecule, and hence it may be a potential protein-protein interaction site. A relatively low sequence homology is found between OHV A-PLA2 and other known cardiotoxic PLA2s, and hence a contiguous segment could not be identified as a site responsible for the cardiotoxic activity.

Role of polyethyleneimine in the purification of recombinant human tumour necrosis factor beta

The chromatographic behaviour of recombinant human tumour necrosis factor beta (rhTNF-beta) (pI approximately 9.0) during cation-exchange chromatography at pH 7.5 is investigated. Without prior treatment of the Escherichia coli cell extract with polyethyleneimine (PEI), very little rhTNF-beta was bound to the column. However, upon addition of 5% PEI (100 microliters ml-1) to the cell lysate, rhTNF-beta was shown to bind to cation-exchange columns normally. TNF-beta was readily precipitated from the clarified cell extract by 20% ammonium sulphate, but ony ca. 25% of this precipitate could be re-solubilized for further purification. However, when 5% PEI was included in the solubilization buffer, the balance of the rhTNF-beta could be recovered. It is proposed that charge interaction between rhTNF-beta and nucleic acids in the cell extract is responsible for both of these anomalous phenomena, and that PEI (a cationic polyelectrolyte) was able to disrupt this interaction by displacing rhTNF-beta from the charge complex.

Assessing the need for challenging behaviour services in an English health district

The aim of the present study was to assess the health care needs for people with learning difficulties who display challenging behaviour in a newly established health district. Ninety-eight clients were studied, using Disability Assessment Schedule (DAS), Aberrant Behaviour Checklist (ABC) and The Psychopathology Inventory for Mentally Retarded Adults (PIMRA). The results showed that a large proportion of them were mobile, continent and able to feed themselves. Almost half had no problems in communication but less than half were sociable. On the whole, they did not have adequate skills. A large proportion of them did not present severe challenging behaviour and did not suffer from psychiatric illnesses, apart from inappropriate adjustment disorder. Correlation coefficients showed that there were relationships between challenging behaviours and some of clients' disabilities and inappropriate adjustment disorder.

Cloning and characterization of cDNAs encoding three isoforms of phospholipase A2 in Malayan spitting cobra (Naja naja sputatrix) venom

cDNAs encoding three phospholipase A2 (PLA2) isoforms in Naja naja sputatrix were cloned and characterized. One of them encoded an acidic PLA2 (APLA) while the others encoded neutral PLA2 (NPLA-1 and NPLA-2). The specific characteristics of APLA and NPLA were attributed to mutations at nt139 and nt328 from G to C and G to A, respectively, resulting in amino acid substitutions from Asp20 and 83 in APLA to His20 and Asn83 in NPLA. Amino acid sequencing of purified protein also showed the presence of this Asp20 and His20 in APLA and NPLA, respectively. The cDNA encoding one of the PLA2 (NAJPLA-2A), when expressed in Escherichia coli, yielded a protein that exhibited PLA2 activity.

A critique of the concept of quality of life

Taking a philosophical approach, ancient Greek philosophers and Christians began to investigate the concept of quality of life. Later, such philisophical pursuit was replaced by the school of positivism, which indicated that science was and still is the only valid form of enquiry. Through such positivistic science, the metaphysical nature of the concept of quality of life is thought to be uncovered. However, the later Wittgensteinian philosophical thoughts demonstrated that there is no metaphysical understanding of any concepts but there is only knowledge of playing language games. In the light of this philosophy, prior to any scientific investigations, researchers have already understood and agreed on the concept of quality of life by playing language games. From the above philosophical analyses, outlines some implications for health care research.

Recent service evaluation research on people with learning difficulties

Substantial research on the evaluation of residential services for people with learning difficulties emerged over the last ten years in the UK. Reviews some of the major findings (N = 14). Their measures on the effectiveness of services were based on three components: the reduction of clients' challenging behaviour; the level of engagement between staff and clients; and clients' community involvement. An overall impression showed inconsistency and controversy in the first two components but a negative trend in the third. Discusses some methodological issues and suggests other components for service evaluation research.

Communication skill and behaviour disorder

The aim was to identify changes in communication skills and behaviour disorder of 15 clients with learning difficulties 6 mo. and 1 yr. after they moved from large- to small-scale accommodations. Clients were allocated into a group of 6 with profound multiple learning difficulties, a preverbal group of 5, and a verbal group of 4. Communication skills were measured using the Preverbal Communication Schedule, and behavioural disorder was measured using the Aberrant Behaviour Checklist. Analysis showed that from the baseline to one year follow-up, there was a significant increase from baseline in social withdrawal by the clients with multiple difficulties but that there were improvements in communication skills of both preverbal and verbal clients. No control group was involved.

A preliminary study on the prevalence of challenging behaviours

The purpose of this study was to estimate the prevalence of challenging behaviour among subjects with learning disabilities in an English health district. Subjects' disabilities included incontinence, lack of communication skills, and need of assistance with domestic activities, feeding, washing, and dressing. Some also had physical impairments. The most common behaviours were hyperactivity and irritability and the most common psychiatric disorders included severe anxiety, affective disorder, and adjustment disorder.

Linear epitopes of sperm whale myoglobin identified by polyclonal antibody screening of random peptide library

Distinct enhancement of antibody-specific clones was apparent during the screening against random peptide libraries with antigen-specific polyclonal antibodies. Several sequence motifs obtained from these screenings were homologous with the primary sequence of myoglobin. Two of these motifs have been confirmed as antigenic determinants by competitive inhibition tests using eight-branched synthetic peptides. One of the peptides has a sequence that corresponds to amino acid residues 42-50, KFDRFKHLK, of the myoglobin sequence. This is a new epitope of myoglobin that is reported for the first time. The epitope is located precisely in the "turn' or "loop' region between helices C and D of the crystal structure of myoglobin. The second antibody binding site has a sequence of DIAAKYKELGYQG, and this is located between residues 141-153, which is the C-terminus of myoglobin. This epitope encompassed two linear epitopes of myoglobin, amino acid residues 145-151 and 147-153, that have been reported earlier based on immunochemical characterisation of cleavage fragments of the protein. These results clearly indicate that epitope mapping using polyclonal antibodies against random peptide libraries can identify new epitopes precisely, as well as confirm epitopes of myoglobin obtained earlier using established methodologies.

Improvements on the purification of mannan-binding lectin and demonstration of its Ca(2+)-independent association with a C1s-like serine protease

Mannan-binding lectin (MBL), previously called 'mannan-binding protein' or MBP, is a plasma C-type lectin which, upon binding to carbohydrate structures on micro-organisms, activates the classical pathway of complement. Purification of MBL relies on its Ca(2+)-dependent affinity for carbohydrate, but existing methods are susceptible to contamination by anti-carbohydrate antibodies. In the present study a sequential-sugar-elution method has been developed which can achieve a preparation of virtually pure MBL and its associated serine protease (MBL-associated serine protease, MASP) by two steps of affinity chromatography. In further separation of MASP from MBL, it was found that activated MASP was associated with MBL independent of Ca2+. Since MBL was found to bind to underivatized Sepharose 4B, the MBL-MASP complex was purified using Sepharose 4B and protease inhibitors were included to purify the complex with MASP in its proenzyme form. Analysis of thus-purified MBL-MASP complex by gel filtration on a Sephacryl S-300 column at pH 7.8 showed that the proenzyme MASP was also associated with MBL independently of Ca2+, but that the complex could be disrupted at a low pH (5.0). Therefore the mechanism of MBL-MASP-mediated complement activation appears to be significantly different from the C1-mediated classical pathway.

Stonustoxin is a novel lethal factor from stonefish (Synanceja horrida) venom. cDNA cloning and characterization

Stonustoxin (SNTX) is a multifunctional lethal protein isolated from venom elaborated by the stonefish, Synanceja horrida. It comprises two subunits, termed alpha and beta, which have respective molecular masses of 71 and 79 kDa. SNTX elicits an array of biological responses both in vitro and in vivo, particularly a potent hypotension that appears to be mediated by the nitric oxide pathway. As a prelude to structure-function studies, we have isolated and sequenced cDNA clones encoding the alpha- and beta-subunits of SNTX from a venom gland cDNA library. The deduced amino acid sequence of neither subunit shows significant homology with any known protein. Protein sequence alignment does, however, show the subunits to be 50% homologous to each other and implies that they may have arisen from a common ancestor. The subunits of this novel toxin lack typical N-terminal signal sequences commonly found in proteins that are secreted via the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi apparatus pathway, indicating the possibility of its being secreted by a non-classical pathway, which is not clearly understood. The SNTX subunits have been expressed in Escherichia coli as cleavable fusion proteins that cross-react with antibodies raised against the native toxin. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first complete sequence of a fish-derived protein toxin to be reported.

Causes of age-related decline in adaptive behavior of adults with Down syndrome: differential diagnoses of dementia

Although a decline in adaptive behavior with age in adults with Down syndrome has been established, the underlying causes of the decline remain unresolved. Differential causes of the decline in 201 adults with Down syndrome were investigated. Aging, dementia, and severity of mental retardation were found to be significant factors. Absence of a medical illness was a factor that predicted a higher level of adaptive behavior. No significant difference in age-related maladaptive behaviors was found. However, a clinical diagnosis of dementia was a predictive factor for increased maladaptive behavior. Clinical implications of these findings were discussed.

Cloning of the aldehyde reductase gene from a red yeast, Sporobolomyces salmonicolor, and characterization of the gene and its product

An NADPH-dependent aldehyde reductase (ALR) isolated from a red yeast, Sporobolomyces salmonicolor, catalyzes the reduction of a variety of carbonyl compounds. To investigate its primary structure, we cloned and sequenced the cDNA coding for ALR. The aldehyde reductase gene (ALR) comprises 969 bp and encodes a polypeptide of 35,232 Da. The deduced amino acid sequence showed a high degree of similarity to other members of the aldo-keto reductase superfamily. Analysis of the genomic DNA sequence indicated that the ALR gene was interrupted by six introns (two in the 5' noncoding region and four in the coding region). Southern hybridization analysis of the genomic DNA from S. salmonicolor indicated that there was one copy of the gene. The ALR gene was expressed in Escherichia coli under the control of the tac promoter. The enzyme expressed in E. coli was purified to homogeneity and showed the same catalytic properties as did the enzyme from S. salmonicolor.

The complete sequence of a Singapore isolate of odontoglossum ringspot virus and comparison with other tobamoviruses

The complete sequence of a Singapore isolate of odontoglossum ringspot virus (ORSV-S1) comprises 6609 nucleotides (nt) and four open reading frames (ORFs 1 to 4). The 126/183-kDa RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), 33-kDa movement protein (MP) and 18-kDa coat protein (CP) cistrons are located at nt 63-3401/4901, 4807-5718, and 5721-6197 on the genome, respectively. The 5' UTR contains three copies of an 8-base direct repeat and (CAA)n motifs. Characteristic tRNA-like structure and three consecutive homologous regions were present in the 3' UTR. The genomic RNA and MP of ORSV-S1 are one of the longest among all members of the TOV group. Phylogenetic analysis of all four genes indicates evolutionary divergence, but within each gene there are some degrees of evolutionary convergence. The conserved amino acid sequences in the MP can be used for the classification of tobamoviruses.

Responses and needs in a changing situation: staff who work with people with learning disability

Questionnaires were sent to residential care staff working with people with learning disability both in hospital and community settings, to explore any changes resulting from implementation of the policy of care in the community. Information was obtained on the current job situation of staff, their opinions on the effect of the policy of care in the community, their training needs, and perceived job prospects for the future. Findings for staff working in a hospital setting are compared with those of staff working in the community and discussed in the context of changing demands and conditions.

The structure and expression of an hsc70 gene from Lycopersicon esculentum

A tomato hsc70 genomic clone (Lehsc70-3; Lycopersicon esculentum heat-shock cognate 70-3) was obtained by screening a genomic library with the tomato Lehsc70-2 cDNA. Two restriction fragments of 2.6 and 5 kb, which compose the Lehsc70-3 gene, were subcloned into pBluescriptIIKS+ and analyzed. Transcript mapping reveals that the mature Lehsc70-3 mRNA contains a 122-nt 5' untranslated region (UTR), a coding region of 1956 nt corresponding to a polypeptide of 651 amino acids, an intron of 717 nt and a 3' UTR. Analysis of genomic DNA indicates that Lehsc70-3 is present as a low-copy-number gene. We note that the sequence upstream from the coding region of Lehsc70-3 shares common features with a number of hsc/hsp genes. High-temperature treatment (37 degrees C) caused a twofold increase in the level of the Lehsc70-3 mRNA. However, Lehsc70-3 has also been expressed at substantial levels in tomato vegetative tissues, suggesting a general function of this hsc70 gene in L. esculentum.

Bestatin analogue from Streptomyces neyagawaensis SL-387

A bestatin analogue, (2S,3R)-3-amino-2-hydroxy-4-phenylbutanoyl-L-valine (AHPA-Val), from the culture filtrate of Streptomyces neyagawaensis SL-387 was obtained in a chemically defined medium containing DL-3-amino-3-phenylpropionic acid. AHPA-Val was 6 times (IC50 = 1.2 micrograms/ml) as strong as bestatin (IC50 = 7.0 micrograms/ml) against porcine kidney microsomal aminopeptidase N, and 4 times (5.6 micrograms/ml) as strong as bestatin (IC50 = 20.7 micrograms/ml) against aminopeptidase N of human metastatic fibrosarcoma HT1080. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the microbial production of AHPA-Val.

Maladaptive behaviour in Prader-Willi syndrome in adult life

Thirty adults with Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) were compared with 30 adults with non-specific learning disability matched for age, sex and severity of mental retardation. Maladaptive behaviour was assessed with the Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC), a 58-item structured interview which rates behaviours from 0 (not a problem) to 3 (severe problem) and which yields five factors (I) irritability, agitation; (II) lethargy, withdrawal; (III) stereotypic behavior; (IV) hyperactivity, non-compliance; and (V) inappropriate speech). The PWS sample had significantly higher factor I (P < 0.001) and factor V (P < 0.05) scores. The PWS sample had mean scores above 1 for 17 ABC items; the contrast subjects had no mean scores above 1. The factor I scores for the PWS sample were similar to those of inpatients in hospital facilities for adults with mental retardation and mental illness or severely challenging behaviour. The results support previous work, and extend it by suggesting that temper tantrums, self-injury, impulsiveness, lability of mood, inactivity and repetitive speech are characteristic behaviours in PWS in adult life. Studies of the reasons for heterogeneity in behaviour are now needed.

Structural studies of a major hemorrhagin (rhodostoxin) from the venom of Calloselasma rhodostoma (Malayan pit viper)

The complete amino acid sequence, disulfide linkages, glycosylation sites, and carbohydrate structure of rhodostoxin, the major hemorrhagin from Calloselasma rhodostoma (Malayan pit viper), have been determined. This sequence confirmed the deduced amino acid sequence of the putative hemorrhagic protein encoded by the prorhodostomin cDNA of C. Rhodostoma. Rhodostoxin contained four disulfide bonds that link Cys19-Cys60, Cys117-Cys198, Cys157-Cys182, and Cys159-Cys165. It is the first four-disulfide proteinase reported among all known venom metalloproteinases, which are either of the two-disulfide or three-disulfide type. Peptide-mapping and dot-blotting experiments showed the presence of two glycopeptides. Subsequent sequencing of these peptides established that the N-glycosylation sites are located at residues 91 and 181 of the amino acid sequence of the matured protein. Mass spectrometric analyses of these glycopeptides showed that they contain an oligosaccharide structure consisting of 4 units of N-acetylglucosamine, 5 units of hexose, 1 unit of fucose, and 2 units of neuraminic acids. The complete carbohydrate structure was then established by 2-D mapping analysis of the pyridylamino-oligosaccharides after hydrazinolysis and pyridylamination of the glycan chains.

Differences in attitudes among medical students towards psychiatry in one English university

Responses of 146 medical students in the final academic year on the Attitudes Towards Psychiatry Questionnaire were obtained before and after the clerkship in psychiatry. While there were no significant differences between the 57 men and 89 women, students' image of psychiatrists did not change but several initially held attitudes about psychiatric practice and training improved following the clerkship.

Ketone reductase activity and reduced haloperidol/haloperidol ratios in haloperidol-treated schizophrenic patients

Twenty schizophrenic patients were treated with a fixed haloperidol (HL) dose of 20 mg/day for 4 weeks. The conversion of HL to its reduced metabolite (reduced haloperidol, RH) occurs via the ketone reductase enzyme. RH is also converted back to HL by the cytochrome P450 2D6 isozyme. Ketone reductase activity can be measured in red blood cells. Plasma HL and RH levels were assayed by high performance liquid chromatography. Blood samples were obtained at baseline and during weeks 2 and 4 of HL therapy. Seventeen of 20 patients had ketone reductase values < 3. A significant correlation between ketone reductase and RH/HL plasma ratios was observed at week 4 in these 17 patients. Patients with ketone reductase activity < 3 could represent a subgroup of patients that metabolize HL differently. The wide interpatient variability observed with HL and RH plasma levels in HL-treated patients could reflect differences in ketone reductase activity and the metabolic status of debrisoquin hydroxylase (cytochrome P450IID6) in psychiatric patients.

Classification of psychotic symptoms in dementia sufferers

Little attention has been payed to the classification of psychotic symptoms in dementia sufferers. This article compares the etiology of delusions, visual hallucinations and delusional misidentification and examines the value of factors generated from principal components analysis as a possible classificatory system in a group of 125 patients with DSM-III-R dementia in contact with clinical services who were prospectively evaluated using standardized instruments to describe in detail individual psychotic symptoms. The assessment also included the Geriatric Mental State Schedule, the History and Aetiology Schedule and the CAMCOG. Delusions and visual hallucinations had a distinct cognitive profile as did delusions and delusional misidentification, although there was an overlap between visual hallucinations and delusional misidentification. Four factors were generated from principal components analysis. Three of these closely mirrored the 3 symptom groups delusions, visual hallucinations and delusional misidentification, although the phantom-boarder delusion was correlated with the visual hallucination factor and not delusional misidentification. The fourth factor included visual hallucinations of relatives and delusions that relatives were in the house. This factor was strongly inversely associated with emotional distress and could perhaps best be seen as a comfort phenomena. The pattern of cognitive deficits and etiological associations of each of the factors were independent of one another, supporting the notion that it is useful to consider them as separate entities.

Purification and characterization of two forms of cytochrome b5 from an arachidonic acid-producing fungus, Mortierella hygrophila

Two forms of cytochrome b5 have been purified from the microsomes of an arachidonic acid-producing fungus, Mortierella hygrophila IFO 5941, after detergent solubilization. They have monomeric molecular masses of about 16 kDa and 19 kDa. Their absorption spectra are similar to those of mammalian cytochrome b5s. Their amino acid compositions show some similarity to those of mammalian cytochrome b5s, but the contents of some amino acids (glycine, alanine, aspartic acid + asparagine, glutamic acid + glutamine, arginine, proline, histidine, leucine and lysine) are unique to the cytochrome b5s of M. hygrophila. Some of their internal peptide sequences also show close homology with those of some mammals (approx. 65 to 67%), while some others show no or little homology. The addition of various acyl-CoAs to NADH-reduced microsomes caused an abrupt shiftdown of the steady state reduction level of cytochrome b5. This indicates the increased utilization of electrons for the desaturation process and may suggest that the cytochrome b5s of this fungus actually take part in its microsomal desaturation system for polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis as electron carriers.

Analysis of recombinant human tumor necrosis factor beta by capillary electrophoresis

Capillary electrophoresis was used for the analysis of recombinant human tumor necrosis factor beta (rhTNF-beta). Reproducible separation of the protein could be achieved in Polybrene-coated capillaries. Optimum conditions for separation were achieved with a pH 4.5 sodium acetate buffer. Besides Polybrene-coated capillaries, other commercially available column and column-coating reagents were also examined for the separation of rhTNF-beta. Capillary electrophoresis was found to be a potentially useful method for product analysis and process monitoring in recombinant-DNA technology.

BamHI and HindIII repetitive DNA families in the rice genome

In this paper we describe a novel method of cloning representative members of different repetitive DNA families based on the screening of a rice (Oryza sativa) genomic library using DNA from different C0t fractions as probes. Two genomic clones, which represent two different repetitive DNA families in rice, were isolated by this method and have been characterized. Their nucleotide sequences, copy numbers, distributions in major rice genome types, methylation patterns, and chromosomal localizations were determined.

Epitope identification by polyclonal antibody from phage-displayed random peptide library

Screening of bioactive peptides from random peptide libraries using monoclonal antibodies as ligates is an effective method to define epitopes of protein antigens. However, it is thought that polyclonal antibodies might also serve as promising ligates for screening. We illustrate this approach by using recombinant human lymphotoxin (rhLT) polyclonal antibody as a model. The procedure consists in (a) affinity purification of polyclonal antibody to obtain the "monospecific" antibody, (b) screening against a phage-displayed random peptide library using the affinity-purified antibody, (c) plating the enriched phage on agar plates, randomly picking clones, and selecting the positive ones by dot blotting, (d) DNA sequencing of the positive clones and conducting a homology search against the protein sequence databank, and (e) confirming the epitopes by chemical peptide synthesis. By employing this procedure, we identified a dominant epitope RQHPKM, located at residues 15-20 of the human lymphotoxin amino acid sequence. The usefulness of this general procedure is discussed.

A serotype-specific epitope of dengue virus 1 identified by phage displayed random peptide library

From a panel of monoclonal antibodies of dengue viruses, a serotype-specific epitope of dengue virus 1 was screened from a random peptide library displayed on phage. The epitope was the determinant reactive with monoclonal antibody 15F3-1 that was specific to dengue 1. The screening was monitored by a dot blotting procedure, and after three rounds of screening a consensus motif, HRYSWK, was found. This sequence matches the sequence HKYSWK, corresponding to the amino acid residues 885-890 of polyprotein or residues 111-116 of the non-structural protein 1 of dengue virus serotype 1. The linear epitope was confirmed by testing the antigenicity of chemically synthesized 8-branched peptide.

Podiatric disorders among children with Down syndrome and learning disability

This study investigated podiatric pathology in seven- to 14-year-old children with Down syndrome (DS) and non-Down syndrome learning-disabled and non-learning-disabled age-matched controls. Several conditions, including pes planus, fissures, split toenails, increased plantar flexed first ray and a wide hallucal cleft were found to be more common in the DS group. Pes cavus and foot rigidity were more common in the non-DS learning-disabled group. In all groups the majority of children wore laced shoes, which were most ill-fitting among children with a learning disability. Approximately one-third in each group had abnormal foot-pressure prints. Greater care and professional awareness of podiatric pathology in children with learning disability is recommended.

Reviewing Frankl's Will to meaning and its implications for psychotherapy dealing with post-traumatic stress disorder

Recent research has shown that people who have gone through war experiences in one way or the other tend to manifest reactions classified as post-traumatic stress disorder. Viktor Frankl, the founder of logotherapy, manifested PTSD reactions when he was in a concentration camp. This paper attempts to sketch how he lived through his traumatic experiences by relying on the principle of Will to Meaning as his survival mechanism. Two implications will be outlined derived from this principle for psychotherapies dealing with disaster survivors.