Newly proliferated cells in the adult male amygdala are affected by gonadal steroid hormones

Gonadal steroid hormones play an important role in the proliferation, survival, and activation of neurons. The present study was performed to examine the effects of testosterone and its metabolites on newly proliferated cells in the amygdala of adult male meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus). Treatment with testosterone propionate (TP) in castrated males resulted in plasma testosterone levels similar to males following mating. TP-treated males displayed a significant increase in the density of cells labeled with a cell proliferation marker (BrdU) in the amygdala. Treatment with estradiol benzoate (EB) exerted a similar effect as TP on the density of BrdU-labeled cells, whereas 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) was ineffective. A larger proportion (approximately 44%) of the BrdU-labeled cells in the amygdala displayed a neuronal phenotype, and a lesser percentage (approximately 35%) displayed a glial progenitor phenotype; however, treatment effects were not found in either population of cells. Hormonal effects appeared to be site-specific as no group differences were found in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus or ventromedial hypothalamus. Finally, a time course study indicated that BrdU-labeled cells in the amygdala are present as early as 30 min following an acute injection of BrdU. Together, these data suggest that gonadal steroid hormones influence the number of newly proliferated cells in the amygdala, most likely by acting through an estrogenic mechanism, and these effects may be exerted on locally proliferating progenitors within the amygdala.

Autocrine regulation of prolactin secretion by endothelins throughout the estrous cycle

We have previously found that the ovarian steroid background determines the efficiency of the endothelin-mediated autocrine feedback regulation of prolactin (PRL) secretion. In this study, we investigated the role of endogenous endothelins in regulating PRL secretion during the estrous cycle. Adult female rats representing different stages of the 4-d cycle were sacrificed by decapitation, and the anterior pituitary cells were enzymatically dispersed using collagenase and hyaluronidase. PRL secretion of individual lactotrophs was measured in a PRL-specific reverse hemolytic plaque assay, and the influence of endogenous endothelins on PRL secretion was assessed by applying the selective ET(A) receptor antagonist peptide, BQ123. Blocking the endothelin-mediated autocrine feedback resulted in an increase in PRL secretion when cells were obtained at proestrus, estrus, and diestrus-1, whereas PRL secretion was decreased at diestrus-2 by ET(A) receptor blockade. These observations suggest that endogenous endothelins are predominantly inhibitory during proestrus, estrus, and diestrus-1, whereas at diestrus-2 their influence on PRL secretion is stimulatory. Whereas the bell-shaped concentration-response curves with BQ123 at proestrus and diestrus-1 may indicate a transition state in which endogenous endothelins can be both stimulatory and inhibitory, at estrus the influence of endogenous endothelins is unequivocally inhibitory in nature. We propose that intensification of the endogenous endothelin- mediated negative feedback at estrus may play a role in restraining PRL secretion following the estradiol- induced proestrous PRL surge.

Circadian rhythms of neuroendocrine dopaminergic neuronal activity in ovariectomized rats

Prolactin (PRL) secretion is inhibited by dopamine (DA) released from hypothalamic neuroendocrine neurons designated tuberoinfundibular (TIDA), tuberohypophyseal (THDA) and periventricular hypophyseal (PHDA) dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons. Since PRL is secreted in many physiological states with a circadian rhythm, the purpose of these experiments was to determine if patterns of neuroendocrine DAergic neuronal activity in rats are also circadian. The activity of neuroendocrine DAergic neurons, defined as DA turnover rate in nerve terminals and quantitated as the ratio of DOPAC (a primary DA metabolite) to DA content, was measured by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection (HPLC-EC) in these populations of DA neurons of OVX rats. TIDA neurons exhibit a rhythm of activity in a light:dark cycle which free-runs in constant dark (DD) and is entrained by light, indicating that TIDA neuronal activity is circadian. THDA and PHDA neurons also display daily rhythms entrained to a photoperiod and PHDA neuronal activity free-runs in DD with a period of approximately 24 h. However, a significant rhythm of THDA neuronal activity was not detected under DD. In the OVX rat, the activities of TIDA and PHDA neurons, but not THDA neurons, describe all the characteristics of a circadian rhythm as they are both entrained by light, but only TIDA and PHDA neurons maintain a significant rhythm of activity under DD.

Antagonism of vasoactive intestinal peptide mRNA in the suprachiasmatic nucleus disrupts the rhythm of FRAs expression in neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons

This study was designed to determine whether there is a functional relationship between cfos expression in vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) -containing neurons of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and Fos-related antigens (FRAs) expression in neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons of the arcuate (ARN) and periventricular (PeVN) nuclei of the hypothalamus. Brains were obtained from ovariectomized (OVX) female rats killed at 12:00 AM, 7:00 AM, 9:00 AM, 12:00 PM, and 7:00 PM (12 hours illumination beginning 6:00 AM). Antibodies against FRAs and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) identified activated neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons. Antibodies against cfos and VIP identified activated VIP-immunoreactive (IR) neurons in the SCN. The proportion of neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons in the ARN and PeVN expressing FRAs was greatest and equivalent at 7:00 AM, 9:00 AM, 12:00 PM, and 12:00 AM. At 7:00 PM, the proportion of neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons expressing FRAs was significantly lower than all other time points. In the SCN, a subpopulation of VIP-IR neurons maximally expressed cfos at 7:00 AM, which decreased through 9:00 AM. cFos was not expressed at 7:00 PM and 12:00 AM in VIP-IR neurons. Antisense VIP oligonucleotides were injected into the SCN to determine whether attenuation of VIP expression disturbs rhythms in neuroendocrine dopaminergic neuronal activity. OVX rats were infused with either antisense VIP oligonucleotides or scrambled sequence oligonucleotides bilaterally (0.5 microg in 0.5 microl of saline per side) in the SCN. Animals were killed 34 hours (7:00 PM) and 46 hours (7:00 AM) after receiving infusions, and brains were recovered. Administration of antisense VIP oligonucleotides decreased VIP protein expression in the SCN and prevented the decrease in the percentage of neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons expressing FRAs at 7:00 PM but did not affect FRAs expression at 7:00 AM when compared with animals receiving scrambled oligonucleotides. These data suggest that VIP fibers from the SCN may relay time-of-day information to neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons to inhibit their activity and, thus, initiate prolactin release in the evening.

Laparoscopic paraesophageal hernia repair

The term paraesophageal hernia is described as a herniation of the gastric fundus through the open hiatus into the thoracic cavity while the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) remains in its normal anatomic position. This is considered a rolling esophageal hernia (Type II), and it is the least commonly encountered hiatal hernia. A more commonly encountered herniation of the fundus of the stomach is the Type III hernia, in which both the LES and the fundus herniate into the chest. This has also been classified as a paraesophageal hernia. The most common hiatal hernia is a sliding hiatal hernia (Type I), which consists of herniation of the stomach through the esophageal hiatus, causing the LES and gastric cardia to lie in the thoracic cavity. There are several controversial issues involved in paraesophageal hernia repair, including indications for surgery, the most appropriate surgical approach, and the need for a concomitant antireflux procedure. The increasing popularity of laparoscopic paraesophageal hernia repair has dramatically altered the approach to these patients and has allowed patients at higher risk to better tolerate this procedure with a decrease in morbidity and mortality. However, they remain difficult surgical procedures.

Salsolinol is a putative endogenous neuro-intermediate lobe prolactin-releasing factor

The isolation and identification of a prolactin-releasing factor (PRF) from the neuro-intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland has been pursued for over a decade. Using high-pressure liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection (HPLC-ECD) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) (R)-salsolinol (SAL) (a dopamine-related stereo-specific tetrahydroisoquinoline) was found to be present in neuro-intermediate lobe as well as median eminence extracts of male, intact-, and ovariectomized female rats. Moreover, analysis of SAL concentrations in neuro-intermediate lobe revealed parallel increases with plasma prolactin in lactating rats exposed to a brief (10 min) suckling stimulus following 4-h separation. SAL appears to be a selective and potent stimulator of prolactin secretion in vivo and it was without effect on the secretion of other pituitary hormones. We have also found that SAL can elevate prolactin release, although to a lesser extent, in pituitary cell cultures as well as in hypophysectomized rats bearing anterior lobe transplants under the kidney capsule. Lack of interference of SAL with [3H]-spiperone binding to AP homogenates indicates that SAL does not act at the dopamine D2 receptor. Moreover, [3H]-SAL binds specifically to homogenate of AL as well as neuro-intermediate lobe obtained from lactating rats. Taken together, our data clearly suggest that SAL is synthesized in situ and this compound can play a role in the regulation of pituitary prolactin secretion.

Decreased expression of fos-related antigens (FRAs) in the hypothalamic dopaminergic neurons after immunoneutralization of endogenous prolactin

In our previous studies we found that administration of exogenous prolactin increased dopamine turnover in the terminal areas of the hypothalamic dopaminergic neurons controlling prolactin secretion from pituitary lactotrophs. In this study we investigated the effect of immunoneutralization of endogenous prolactin on the expression of FRAs in the tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic (TIDA), tuberohypophysial dopaminergic (THDA), and periventricular hypothalamic dopaminergic (PHDA) subpopulations of the hypothalamic dopaminergic neurons. Female rats were ovariectomized on d 0 of the experiment. At 1000 h of d 10, all animals were injected with 20 microg of 17-beta-estradiol sc to induce a proestrous-like surge of prolactin at 1700 h the next day. At 1000 h on d 11, half of the animals were injected with 200 microL of rabbit anti-rat prolactin antiserum ip, while the controls received normal rabbit serum. Groups of animals were sacrificed for immunocytochemistry in 2 h intervals between 1300 and 2100 h. Double-label immunocytochemistry for FRAs and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) was performed and the results are presented as percentage of TH-immunoreactive neurons expressing FRAs. In the control animals, expression of FRAs decreased at 1500 h, gradually increased by 1900 h, but was lower than the basal levels by 2100 h. Expression of FRAs was significantly lower at 1900 h in the PHDA, THDA and TIDA neurons of prolactin antiserum treated rats than in the controls. These results indicate that elimination of endogenous prolactin from the circulation lowers the activity and/or prevents the reactivation of neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons at the beginning of the dark phase.

Vasoactive intestinal peptide fibers innervate neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons

Hypothalamic neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons exhibit a diurnal rhythm. Higher level input to these neurons has not been described. In the present study, we identified fibers known to originate in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which were associated with neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons. Hypothalamic sections were obtained from either ovariectomized (OVX) female rats or OVX female rats implanted with estrogen and progesterone (E+P). Confocal microscopic images were acquired from the periventricular nucleus, as well as the rostral, dorsomedial, ventrolateral, and caudal regions of the arcuate nucleus. Using antibodies directed against vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) the rate-limiting enzyme in dopamine synthesis, fine VIP fibers in close apposition to TH-immunoreactive (IR) soma and proximal dendrites were revealed. Of the antibodies for the two VIP receptor subtypes (VIP1R and VIP2R), only VIP2R was found on TH-IR neurons. E+P significantly increased the incidence and density of neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons expressing VIP2R, when compared to OVX animals. E+P did not affect the percent of neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons associated with VIP fibers. No VIP fibers or VIP2R were found on dopaminergic neurons in the zona incerta. Brain sections triple labeled for Synapsin (a protein localized in synaptic vesicles) VIP, and TH demonstrated that Synapsin was colocalized with VIP fibers that were associated with TH-IR neurons in the arcuate nucleus. Double-label immuno-electron microscopy of hypothalamic sections labeled with antibodies for VIP and TH revealed VIP boutons associated with TH-IR soma and proximal dendrites. These results suggest VIPergic neurons may directly regulate neuroendocrine dopaminergic neuron activity, and ovarian steroids may play a modulatory role.

Autocrine regulation of prolactin secretion by endothelins: a permissive role for estradiol

We have previously found that lactotrophs express and secrete endothelin-like peptides that influence prolactin (PRL) secretion in an autocrine fashion. We have also observed that the incidence of endothelin-immunoreactive lactotrophs is markedly affected by ovarian steroids. In this study, we examined how the ovarian steroid background determines the efficiency of the endothelin-mediated autocrine feedback regulation of PRL secretion. Ovariectomized adult female rats were used throughout these studies. Steroid replacements were made by sc implantation of Silastic capsules immediately following ovariectomy. Eight to 10 wk later, three animals from each treatment group (no steroid control, estradiol, progesterone, estradiol plus progesterone) were sacrificed by decapitation, and the anterior pituitary cells were enzymatically dispersed using collagenase and hyaluronidase. A PRL-specific reverse hemolytic plaque assay was used to measure PRL secretion at the single-cell level. BQ123, a synthetic cyclic pentapeptide with distinctive endothelin-A receptor antagonist quality, caused only a modest elevation of PRL secretion in the control group. Endothelin antagonism did not affect PRL secretion in cells obtained from progesterone-implanted animals. Endothelin antagonism did, however, increase overall PRL secretion in the estradiol and estradiol plus progesterone groups by five- and threefold, respectively. Frequency distribution of PRL plaques in these same two BQ123-treated groups revealed two subpopulations, indicating that lactotrophs differ in their response to endogenous endothelin feedback and that this difference is steroid dependent. These observations clearly suggest that the ovarian steroid milieu (estrogens in particular) can have a profound influence on the self-regulatory mechanisms of lactotrophs. Our results also emphasize that endogenous endothelins may play an important role in the negative feedback regulation of PRL secretion in female rats.

Nuclear translocation of STAT5 and increased expression of Fos related antigens (FRAs) in hypothalamic dopaminergic neurons after prolactin administration

Ample evidence indicates feedback relationships between pituitary prolactin and hypothalamic dopaminergic neurons. Since the presence of prolactin receptors was earlier demonstrated in hypothalamic dopaminergic neurons, our working hypothesis was that prolactin induced activation of prolactin receptor coupled signaling leads to increased neuronal activity in these neurons. The aim of this study was to correlate prolactin receptor mediated signaling and prolactin induced activation in hypothalamic dopaminergic neurons. We used nuclear translocation of STAT5 as a marker of prolactin receptor induced signaling and expression of Fos related antigens (FRAs) as an indicator of neuronal activation. We performed double label immunocytochemical studies to determine the time course of the presence of FRAs and STAT5 in the nuclei of hypothalamic dopaminergic neurons after ovine prolactin treatment. Exogenous ovine prolactin treatment of ovariectomized rats resulted in an increase in serum ovine prolactin levels and a decrease in endogenous serum prolactin levels, indicating that ovine prolactin activated mechanisms inhibited pituitary prolactin secretion. Indeed, ovine prolactin activated the prolactin receptors in most subpopulations of hypothalamic dopaminergic neurons, resulting in nuclear translocation of STAT5. Also, increased neuronal activity, indicated by expression of FRAs, was observed in the same neuron populations after ovine prolactin treatment. These results suggest that signal transduction mechanisms coupled to prolactin receptors in hypothalamic dopaminergic neurons resemble those observed in other tissues; and nuclear translocation of STAT5 can be used as a marker of prolactin receptor activation in hypothalamic dopaminergic neurons.

Endothelin-like immunoreactivity in lactotrophs, gonadotrophs, and somatotrophs of rat anterior pituitary gland are affected differentially by ovarian steroid hormones

It has been previously found that all hormone-producing phenotypes of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland are capable of producing endothelin (ET)-like substances. The aim of this study was to determine whether the expression of ET-1-like peptides in lactotrophs, gonadotrophs, and somatotrophs is influenced by different in vivo ovarian hormonal conditions. Anterior lobes of the pituitary gland were harvested from ovariectomized and ovarian steroid-replaced adult female rats 10-12 d after surgery. Quantitative immunocytochemistry was performed on enzymatically dispersed pituitary cells. The presence of ET-1-like immunoreactivity in prolactin-, luteinizing hormone-, or growth hormone-producing cells was demonstrated by double-label immunocytochemistry. The incidence of ET-1 immunopositive pituitary cells was unaffected by progesterone treatment alone. Estradiol replacement caused a modest decrease in the number of lactotrophs and somatotrophs expressing ET-1 but increased the incidence of ET-1 immunopositive cells among gonadotrophs. Combined treatment with estradiol and progesterone robustly increased the incidence of ET-1 immunopositive lactotrophs and gonadotrophs but had no effect on somatotrophs. These data reveal that the synthesis of ET-1-like peptides in lactotrophs and gonadotrophs (and, to a lesser extent, in somatotrophs) is sensitive to ovarian steroids. Furthermore, these findings predict that ovarian steroids modulate ET-1 biosynthesis during the estrous cycle, suggesting a possible mechanism by which the ovarian steroid milieu may regulate the responsiveness of lactotrophs and gonadotrophs to their hypothalamic secretagogues.

Ovarian steroids influence the activity of neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons

The secretion of prolactin (PRL) from the anterior lobe (AL) of the pituitary gland is tonically inhibited by dopamine (DA) of hypothalamic origin. While ovarian steroids play a role in the regulation of the secretion of PRL, their effect on all three populations of hypothalamic neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons is not fully understood. In this study we describe the effects of ovarian steroids on regulation of the release of DA from tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic (TIDA), tuberohypophyseal dopaminergic (THDA) and periventricular-hypophyseal dopaminergic (PHDA) neurons. Adult female rats were bilaterally ovariectomized (OVX) and, 10 days following ovariectomy (day 0), injected with corn oil (vehicle), estrogen, or estrogen plus progesterone (day 1). Animals were sacrificed every 2 h from 09.00 to 21.00 h by rapid decapitation. Trunk blood was collected and the concentration of PRL in serum was determined by radioimmunoassay. The median eminence (ME) and the AL, intermediate (IL) and neural (NL) lobes of the pituitary gland were dissected and the concentration of DA and DOPAC in each was measured by HPLC-EC. OVX rats presented small but significant increases in the secretion of PRL at 15.00 and 17.00 h. Replacement of estrogen or estrogen plus progesterone increased the basal concentration of PRL. Moreover, injection of estrogen only, or estrogen plus progesterone increased the concentration of PRL in serum at 15.00 h through 19.00 h, respectively, followed by a decrease to baseline thereafter. The turnover of DA in the ME and NL of OVX rats increased at 13.00 and returned to low levels. Turnover of DA in the IL of OVX rats increased in the morning by 11.00 h and remained elevated before decreasing by 17.00 h. The turnover of DA in the ME, IL and NL of OVX rats increased by 19.00 h. Injection of estrogen advanced the increase of TIDA activity by 2 h in the ME compared to OVX rats. Moreover, administration of estrogen suppressed the activity of THDA and PHDA neurons in the afternoon compared to OVX rats. In estrogen plus progesterone-treated rats, the activity of hypothalamic neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons terminating in the ME, IL, and NL was inhibited prior to the increase in the secretion of PRL. The concentration of DA in the AL diminished prior to the estrogen-induced increase of PRL. Administration of progesterone, in concert with estrogen, delayed the increase of PRL in serum and the decrease of DA in the AL, compared to estrogen-treated rats, by 4 h. These data suggest a major role for ovarian steroids in controlling increases in the secretion of PRL by not only stimulating PRL release from lactotrophs, but also by inhibiting the activity of all three populations of hypothalamic neuroendocrine DAergic neurons.

Prolactin: structure, function, and regulation of secretion

Prolactin is a protein hormone of the anterior pituitary gland that was originally named for its ability to promote lactation in response to the suckling stimulus of hungry young mammals. We now know that prolactin is not as simple as originally described. Indeed, chemically, prolactin appears in a multiplicity of posttranslational forms ranging from size variants to chemical modifications such as phosphorylation or glycosylation. It is not only synthesized in the pituitary gland, as originally described, but also within the central nervous system, the immune system, the uterus and its associated tissues of conception, and even the mammary gland itself. Moreover, its biological actions are not limited solely to reproduction because it has been shown to control a variety of behaviors and even play a role in homeostasis. Prolactin-releasing stimuli not only include the nursing stimulus, but light, audition, olfaction, and stress can serve a stimulatory role. Finally, although it is well known that dopamine of hypothalamic origin provides inhibitory control over the secretion of prolactin, other factors within the brain, pituitary gland, and peripheral organs have been shown to inhibit or stimulate prolactin secretion as well. It is the purpose of this review to provide a comprehensive survey of our current understanding of prolactin's function and its regulation and to expose some of the controversies still existing.

Immunoneutralization of prolactin prevents stimulatory feedback of prolactin on hypothalamic neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons

We have found that exogenous prolactin (PRL) stimulates all three populations of hypothalamic neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons. In this study, we investigated the effects of immunoneutralization of endogenous PRL on the activity of these neurons. Injection of 17beta-estradiol (E2) (20 microg subcutaneously) 10 d after ovariectomy induced a proestrus-like increase in PRL in peripheral plasma the following afternoon. At 1000 h the day after E2 injection, rats received either rabbit antirat PRL antiserum (PRL-AS) (200 microL) or normal rabbit serum (NRS, 200 microL, controls) intraperitoneally. Groups of rats were then decapitated every 2 h from 1100 h to 2100 h. Trunk blood was collected and serum extracted with protein A to remove the PRL-AS/PRL complex, and the remaining free PRL was measured by radioimmunoassay. Sites of neuroendocrine dopaminergic nerve terminals, the median eminence (ME), and intermediate and neural lobes of the pituitary gland were excised and stored for determination of dopamine (DA) and 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid (DOPAC) concentrations by high-performance liquid chromatography electrochemical detection (EC). In addition, the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, the locus of DA action, was collected. The concentration of PRL in NRS-treated animals increased by 1500 h, peaked by 1700 h, and returned to low levels by 2100 h. PRL-AS prevented the increase in PRL secretion in response to E2. The turnover of DA (DOPAC:DA ratio; an index of dopaminergic neuronal activity) in the ME of NRS-treated animals increased at 1500 h and rapidly returned to basal levels. Treatment with PRL-AS prevented the increase in DA turnover in the ME. DA turnover in the intermediate lobe increased coincident with the peak of PRL in serum of NRS-treated rats. PRL-AS administration prevented increased DA turnover in the intermediate lobe. The turnover of DA in the neural lobe increased by 1300 h and decreased steadily through 2100 h. However, administration of PRL-AS minimally suppressed the turnover of DA in the neural lobe. Moreover, administration of PRL-AS attenuated the rise of DA in the anterior lobe associated with the waning phase of the E2-induced PRL surge. These results clearly indicate that endogenous PRL regulates its own secretion by activating hypothalamic neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons.

Dopamine transporters participate in the physiological regulation of prolactin

Three populations of hypothalamic neuroendocrine dopaminergic (NEDA) neurons, arising from the arcuate and periventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus release dopamine (DA) that acts at the pituitary gland to regulate the secretion of PRL. It is generally accepted that NEDA neurons lack functional DA transporters (DATs), which are responsible for uptake of DA from the synaptic cleft into the presynaptic axon terminal. This study localized DATs to the hypothalamo-pituitary axis and evaluated the effect of DAT blockade on the hypothalamo-pituitary regulation of PRL. After 7 days of treatment with cocaine (a nonspecific amine transporter blocker) or mazindol (a specific DAT blocker), the relative abundance of PRL messenger RNA (mRNA) in the anterior lobe (AL) of OVX rats was significantly decreased, whereas the relative abundance of tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA in the hypothalamus was significantly increased. The effect of cocaine or mazindol administration on DA turnover and serum PRL concentration was examined in estradiol (E2)-treated OVX rats. E2 administration (i.v.) resulted in a significant increase in serum PRL within 4 h; however, cocaine or mazindol administration abolished the E2-induced increase of PRL. Cocaine or mazindol significantly increased the concentration of DA at the site of the axon terminals within the median eminence (ME), intermediate lobe (IL) and neural lobe (NL), indicating blockade of uptake. Because formation of DOPAC requires uptake of DA, concentrations of DOPAC in the ME, IL and NL decreased following treatment with either cocaine or mazindol. These data, together with the presence of immunopositive DAT in the ME, pituitary stalk, IL, and NL, suggest that a functional DAT system is present within all three populations of NEDA neurons. Moreover, similarity between the effects of cocaine and mazindol treatment indicate that blockade of the DAT, but not other amine transporters, is responsible for suppression of PRL gene expression and secretion. Blockade of DATs prevent uptake of DA into NEDA neurons and consequently increases the amount of DA that diffuses into the portal vasculature and reaches the AL. These data provide evidence that DATs play a physiological role in the regulation of DA release from and TH expression in NEDA neurons and consequently PRL secretion and PRL gene expression and further support our previous observation that the regulation of PRL secretion involves all three populations of NEDA neurons.

Mirizzi syndrome: A rare cause of obstructive jaundice

Mirizzi syndrome is a rare cause of bile duct obstruction secondary to extrinsic compression of the hepatic duct by stones impacted in the cystic duct or infundibulum of the gallbladder. The suspicion of Mirizzi syndrome primarily relies on radiographic means such as ultrasound, computed tomography and cholangiography. The recognition of this rare syndrome is crucial in developing the proper treatment approach. We present 3 cases of Mirizzi syndrome and a review of the literature pertaining to the diagnosis and treatment of this rare cause of obstructive jaundice.

Prolactin activates all three populations of hypothalamic neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons in ovariectomized rats

Prior studies suggest that prolactin (PRL) stimulates release of dopamine (DA) from tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic (TIDA) neurons. In the present study, the time course over which PRL exerts its effects on all three populations of neuroendocrine dopaminergic (DAergic) neuron populations [TIDA, tuberohypophyseal (THDA) and periventricular-hypophyseal (PHDA)] was determined. Ten days following ovariectomy (OVX), groups of female rats were injected either with 15 microg of ovine PRL (oPRL) or saline at 0900 h. Rats were decapitated every 30 min from 0830 h-1100 h and hourly from 1200 h-1500 h. Trunk blood was assayed for rat PRL (rPRL) and oPRL using species-specific radioimmunoassays (RIAs). The concentration of DA and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) in the median eminence (ME), as well as the anterior (AL), intermediate (IL) and neural (NL) lobes of the pituitary gland were determined by HPLC-EC. The concentration of rPRL in oPRL-treated animals, compared to saline-treated animals, was diminished by 1000 h and again between 1200 h-1500 h. DOPAC/DA ratio, an indicator of dopaminergic neuronal activity, increased spontaneously in the ME, IL, and NL during the afternoon in OVX rats. In animals injected with oPRL at 0900 h, the DOPAC/DA ratio increased in the ME, IL and NL within 1 h. Moreover, a secondary increase in the DOPAC/DA ratio in the IL and NL occurred during the afternoon in oPRL-treated rats. However, the second increase of DA turnover present in the ME of control animals never occurred in oPRL-treated animals. Furthermore, there were two increases in the concentration of DA in the AL: the first coincided with the increased turnover of DA in all three terminal areas and the second with increased DA turnover in the IL and NL. These data suggest that all three populations of hypothalamic neuroendocrine DAergic neurons are activated by PRL and that PHDA/THDA neurons have a second 'delayed' activation.

Recent advances in the treatment and outcome of locally advanced rectal cancer

OBJECTIVE

To compare the outcomes of treatment of locally advanced rectal cancer of the early era (1975-1990) with those of the late era (1991-1997).

BACKGROUND

Preoperative therapy has been used in locally advanced rectal cancer to preserve sphincter function, decrease local recurrence, and improve survival. At the University of Florida, preoperative radiation has been used since 1975, and it was combined with chemotherapy beginning in 1991.

METHODS

The records of 328 patients who underwent preoperative radiation or chemoradiation followed by complete resection for locally advanced rectal cancer defined as tethered, annular, or fixed tumors were reviewed. The clinicopathologic characteristics, adjuvant treatment administered, surgical procedures performed, and local recurrence-free and overall survival rates were analyzed.

RESULTS

There were 219 patients in the early era and 109 in the late era. No significant differences were seen in patients (age, gender, race) or tumor characteristics (mean distance from the anal verge, annularity, fixation). Preoperative radiation regimens were radiobiologically comparable. No patient in the early era received preoperative chemotherapy, compared with 64 in the late era. Of those receiving any pre- or postoperative chemotherapy, three patients received chemotherapy in the early era, compared with 76 in the late era. Sphincter-preserving procedures increased from 13% in the early era to 52% in the late era. Pathologic downstaging for depth of invasion increased from 42% to 58%, but lymph node negativity remained similar. The 1-, 3-, and 5-year local recurrence-free survival rates were comparable. However, in the late era, 1-, 3-, and 5-year overall survival rates improved significantly compared with those of the early era, and also compared with each of the preceding 5-year intervals.

CONCLUSION

The addition of a chemotherapy regimen to preoperative radiation therapy improves survival over radiation therapy alone. Likewise, an improvement in downstaging is associated with an increase in sphincter-preserving procedures.

Role of alpha- and beta-calcitonin gene-related peptide in postoperative small bowel ileus

Ablation of a-calcitonin gene-related polypeptide (CGRP) containing neurons with the afferent neurotoxin capsaicin improves postoperative foregut transit in a rodent model. Similarly, administration of a selective alpha-CGRP antibody or hCGRP((8-37)), a CGRP receptor antagonist, improves postoperative gastric emptying. Unlike the stomach, which contains only alpha-CGRP, the small bowel additionally contains beta-CGRP. The role of the latter in postoperative small bowel transit is unknown. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of an alpha-CGRP antibody and hCGRP((8-37)) on postoperative small bowel transit. Male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent placement of duodenal catheters and were randomly assigned to 1 of 11 groups. Four groups were pretreated with 1% capsaicin. One week later, all animals underwent standardized laparotomy following administration of a control antibody or the alpha-CGRP mono-clonal antibody, or during infusion of hCGRP((8-37)) at varying doses. Small bowel transit was measured 25 minutes postoperatively. The alpha-CGRP antibody sped postoperative transit when given alone or in combination with capsaicin. In contrast, animals treated with hCGRP((8-37)) showed no significant improvement in postoperative transit, and the beneficial effect of capsaicin was blocked. Unlike their similar effects on postoperative gastric emptying, we found that hCGRP((8-37)) and the alpha-CGRP antibody had differing effects on postoperative small bowel transit. The reason for this is unknown but may be related to their differing specificities for alpha- and beta-CGRP.

Endothelin is an autocrine regulator of prolactin secretion

The aim of this study was to establish the cellular source of ET-like peptides affecting PRL secretion. Fluorescence double label immunocytochemistry and confocal laser scanning microscopy were used to demonstrate cellular colocalization for PRL and endothelin-1 (ET1)-like immunoreactivities in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland of rats. An ET-specific reverse hemolytic plaque assay was applied to demonstrate that lactotrophs are capable of releasing ET-like peptides. A PRL-specific reverse hemolytic plaque assay was used to assess the influence of the released endogenous ETs on PRL secretion. ET(A)-specific receptor antagonists BQ123 and BQ610, and endothelin convertase enzyme inhibitory peptide, [22Val]big ET1-(16-38), increased PRL secretion, whereas the ET(B) receptor-specific antagonist BQ788 was ineffective. The ET(A) antagonist BQ123-induced increase in PRL secretion followed a bell-shaped dose-response curve in cells obtained from female rats, whereas it followed a sigmoid curve in males. Frequency distribution of PRL plaque sizes using logarithmically binned data revealed two subpopulations of lactotrophs with differential responsiveness to endogenous ETs. These data demonstrate that a large proportion of lactotrophs is capable of expressing and secreting ET-like peptides in biologically significant quantities. As low pituitary cell density in reverse hemolytic plaque assay minimizes cell to cell communications, these findings constitute direct proof of autocrine regulation of PRL secretion by ET-like peptides.

The effect of neurointermediate lobe denervation on hypothalamic neuroendocrine dopaminergic neurons

The contribution of tuberohypophyseal and periventricular-hypophyseal dopaminergic neurons to the regulation of the secretion of prolactin (PRL) has yet to be clarified. In this study, we used pituitary stalk compression to disrupt hypothalamic neural input to the neurointermediate lobe (NIL). Neurointermediate lobe denervation (NIL-D) selectively disrupts the axons of tuberohypophyseal and periventricular-hypophyseal dopaminergic neurons, while leaving tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic neurons and the vascular supply of the pituitary gland intact. NIL-D was performed in ovariectomized (OVX) rats. The concentration of DA and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) in the median eminence (ME) and various regions of the pituitary gland of OVX and OVX+NIL-D rats were measured by HPLC-EC. The concentration of PRL, alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH) in serum were determined by radioimmunoassay. Successful NIL-D was confirmed by increased water intake. One week after NIL-D, serum PRL and alpha-MSH were elevated, but there was no change in the concentration of LH in serum. The concentration of DA was increased in the median eminence (ME), decreased in the outer zone of the anterior lobe (AL-OZ), as well as the intermediate (IL) and neural lobes (NL), and remained unchanged in the inner zone of the anterior lobe (AL-IZ). The concentration of DOPAC was increased in the ME and NL, decreased in the IL, and remained unchanged in both the AL-IZ and AL-OZ. These data confirm that pituitary stalk compression denervates the NIL. Moreover, decreases in the concentration of DA in the IL and AL-OZ, coupled with elevation of serum PRL and alpha-MSH indicate that DA from the NIL contributes to the increased inhibition of the secretion of PRL and alpha-MSH in OVX rats.

Ovarian steroids modulate responsiveness to dopamine and expression of G-proteins in lactotropes

The effects of chronic ovarian steroid treatment on the secretory activity of individual lactotropes and the mechanisms modulating their responsiveness to dopamine (DA) were studied. Female rats were ovariectomized (OVX) and implanted with Silastic capsules containing progesterone (P4), 17beta), 17beta-estradiol (E2) or both E2 (E2+P4). Ten days after surgery, anterior pituitaries were enzymatically dispersed and the reverse hemolytic plaque assay (RHPA) was performed to assess the release of prolactin (PRL) from individual lactotropes. RHPA was combined with immunocytochemistry (ICC) for PRL, Galphas or Gialpha3/Galphao proteins. E2 treatment alone or in combination with P4 increased the percentage of immunoreactive lactotropes among anterior pituitary cells. Incidence of active (plaque-forming) lactotropes, however, was increased both in P4-, and E2-treated rats and E2+P4 treatment increased it even further. While P4 treatment did not affect the frequency distribution of lactotropes, both E2 and E2+P4 treatments increased the large plaque-forming lactotrope population. This increase was reflected by the significantly greater mean plaque areas of lactotropes from E2- and E2+P4-treated rats compared to OVX or P4-treated animals. The responsiveness of lactotropes to DA from P4-treated rats did not differ from that of OVX rats: thus challenge with 1 microM DA inhibited the release of PRL, while 100 pM DA had no effect. E2 and E2+P4 treatments, however, profoundly changed the lactotrope's responsiveness: challenge with 1 microM DA had no effect and 100 pM DA resulted in moderate stimulation of PRL release in E2+P4 rats. Double-label ICC revealed that ovarian steroid treatments did not affect the expression of Galphas in lactotropes. The incidence of Gialpha3/Galphao-immunoreactive lactotropes, however, decreased after E2 treatment, alone or in combination with P4. Although expression of Galphas was similar in all plaque-forming cells regardless of plaque size, lactotropes expressing Gialpha3/Galphao were more likely to form small plaques in all treatment groups. These data suggest: (1) ovarian steroid treatment recruits quiescent lactotropes to release PRL; (2) E2 treatment alone or in combination with P4 increases the amount of PRL rleased by individual lactotropes; (3) E2-induced alterations in the frequency distribution and lactotrope responsiveness to DA may be due in part to a decreased expression of Gialpha3/Galphao.

Ovarian steroids differentially regulate the expression of PRL-R in neuroendocrine dopaminergic neuron populations: a double label confocal microscopic study

The aims of this study were (1) to identify the possible hypothalamic targets for a short prolactin (PRL) feedback in the adult female rat by identifying DAergic neuron populations expressing PRL receptor (PRL-R); (2) to describe the effect of ovarian steroids on the expression of PRL-R and (3) to compare the distribution of both the extracellular (EC) and ligand binding (LB) domains of the PRL-R on the hypothalamic dopaminergic neurons by applying double label immunocytochemistry for the different domains of PRL-R and for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). Five- to six-month-old female rats were ovariectomized (OVX) and implanted with either 17 beta-estradiol (E2), progesterone (P4) or received an E2 and a P4 implant (E2 + P4) at the same time. In the periventricular nucleus and in the dorsomedial portion of the middle arcuate nucleus, a dramatic increase in PRL-REC immunoreactivity was observed in E2 implanted rats. This increase was attenuated in E2 + P4 rats, but P4 treatment alone had no effect. Changes in PRL-REC expression were paralleled by changes in serum PRL levels. Interestingly, PRL-REC expression in the rostral arcuate nucleus decreased in P4 implanted rats, however, P4 did not attenuate the E2-induced increase in PRL-REC density. PRL-REC immunostaining was observed on the membrane, in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus. PRL-RLB immunoreactivity was also detectable in the TH positive neurons, but no nuclear staining was observed with this antibody. However, we found a strong PRL-RLB immunostaining in the ependymal lining of the 3rd ventricle and in the processes of tanycytes projecting to the median eminence. These data indicate that (1) all neuroendocrine DAergic cells can be targets for PRL, (2) expression of PRL-R is differentially affected by ovarian steroids in the different TH cell populations, (3) PRL-RLB domain may be involved in trafficking PRL in the median eminence.