First field-based observations of δ2H and δ18O values of event-based precipitation, rivers and other water bodies in the Dzungarian Gobi, SW Mongolia

For certain remote areas like Mongolia, field-based precipitation, surface and ground water isotopic data are scarce. So far no such data exist for the Mongolian Gobi desert, which hinders the understanding of isotopic fractionation processes in this extreme, arid region. We collected 26 event-based precipitation samples, 39 Bij river samples, and 75 samples from other water bodies in the Dzungarian Gobi in SW Mongolia over a period of 16 months for hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope analysis. δ²H and δ¹⁸O values in precipitation show high seasonal variation and cover an extreme range: 175 ‰ for δ²H and 24 ‰ for δ¹⁸O values. The calculated local meteoric water line (LMWL) shows the isotopic characteristics of precipitation in an arid region. Individual water samples fall into one of three groups: within, above or below the 95 % confidence interval of LMWL. Data presented provide a basis for future studies in this region.

Taming the late Quaternary phylogeography of the Eurasiatic wild ass through ancient and modern DNA

Taxonomic over-splitting of extinct or endangered taxa, due to an incomplete knowledge of both skeletal morphological variability and the geographical ranges of past populations, continues to confuse the link between isolated extant populations and their ancestors. This is particularly problematic with the genus Equus. To more reliably determine the evolution and phylogeographic history of the endangered Asiatic wild ass, we studied the genetic diversity and inter-relationships of both extinct and extant populations over the last 100,000 years, including samples throughout its previous range from Western Europe to Southwest and East Asia. Using 229 bp of the mitochondrial hypervariable region, an approach which allowed the inclusion of information from extremely poorly preserved ancient samples, we classify all non-African wild asses into eleven clades that show a clear phylogeographic structure revealing their phylogenetic history. This study places the extinct European wild ass, E. hydruntinus, the phylogeny of which has been debated since the end of the 19^th century, into its phylogenetic context within the Asiatic wild asses and reveals recent mitochondrial introgression between populations currently regarded as separate species. The phylogeographic organization of clades resulting from these efforts can be used not only to improve future taxonomic determination of a poorly characterized group of equids, but also to identify historic ranges, interbreeding events between various populations, and the impact of ancient climatic changes. In addition, appropriately placing extant relict populations into a broader phylogeographic and genetic context can better inform ongoing conservation strategies for this highly-endangered species.

Framing the relationship between people and nature in the context of European conservation

A key controversy in conservation is the framing of the relationship between people and nature. The extent to which the realms of nature and human culture are viewed as separate (dualistic view) or integrated is often discussed in the social sciences. To explore how this relationship is represented in the practice of conservation in Europe, we considered examples of cultural landscapes, wildlife (red deer, reindeer, horses), and protected area management. We found little support, for a dualistic worldview, where people and nature are regarded as separate in the traditional practice of conservation in Europe. The borders between nature and culture, wild and domestic, public land and private land, and between protected areas and the wider landscape were blurred and dynamic. The institutionalized (in practice and legislation) view is of an interactive mutualistic system in which humans and nature share the whole landscape. However, more dualistic ideals, such as wilderness and rewilding that are challenging established practices are expanding. In the context of modern day Europe, wilderness conservation and rewilding are not valid for the whole landscape, although it is possible to integrate some areas of low-intervention management into a wider matrix. A precondition for success is to recognize and plan for a plurality of values concerning the most valid approaches to conservation and to plan for this plurality at the landscape scale.

A protocol to correct for intra- and interspecific variation in tail hair growth to align isotope signatures of segmentally cut tail hair to a common time line

RATIONALE

In recent years, segmental stable isotope analysis of hair has been a focus of research in animal dietary ecology and migration. To correctly assign tail hair segments to seasons or even Julian dates, information on tail hair growth rates is a key parameter, but is lacking for most species.

METHODS

We (a) reviewed the literature on tail hair growth rates in mammals; b) made own measurements of three captive equid species; (c) measured δ(2)H, δ(13)C and δ(15)N values in sequentially cut tail hairs of three sympatric, free-ranging equids from the Mongolian Gobi, using isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS); and (d) collected environmental background data on seasonal variation by measuring δ(2)H values in precipitation by IRMS and by compiling pasture productivity measured by remote sensing via the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI).

RESULTS

Tail hair growth rates showed significant inter- and intra-specific variation making temporal alignment problematic. In the Mongolian Gobi, high seasonal variation of δ(2)H values in precipitation results in winter lows and summer highs of δ(2)H values of available water sources. In water-dependent equids, this seasonality is reflected in the isotope signatures of sequentially cut tails hairs.

CONCLUSIONS

In regions which are subject to strong seasonal patterns we suggest identifying key isotopes which show strong seasonal variation in the environment and can be expected to be reflected in the animal tissue. The known interval between the maxima and minima of these isotope values can then be used to correctly temporally align the segmental stable isotope signature for each individual animal.

Recovery of large carnivores in Europe's modern human-dominated landscapes

The conservation of large carnivores is a formidable challenge for biodiversity conservation. Using a data set on the past and current status of brown bears (Ursus arctos), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), gray wolves (Canis lupus), and wolverines (Gulo gulo) in European countries, we show that roughly one-third of mainland Europe hosts at least one large carnivore species, with stable or increasing abundance in most cases in 21st-century records. The reasons for this overall conservation success include protective legislation, supportive public opinion, and a variety of practices making coexistence between large carnivores and people possible. The European situation reveals that large carnivores and people can share the same landscape.

Space and habitat use by wild Bactrian camels in the Transaltai Gobi of southern Mongolia

Wild Bactrian camels (Camela ferus) are listed as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and only persist in some of the most remote locations in northern China and southern Mongolia. Although the species has been recognized as an umbrella species for the fragile central Asian desert ecosystem and has been high on the conservation agenda, little is known about the species' habitat requirements, with most information coming from anecdotal sightings and descriptive studies. We compiled the only available telemetry data from wild camels worldwide. Seven wild camels, which were followed for 11-378 monitoring days, covered a total range of 28,410 km², with individual annual ranges being >12,000 km² for three animals followed over a year. Camels reacted strongly to capture events, moving up to 64 km from the capture site within a day, whereas normal average daily straight line distances were 3.0-6.4 km/day. Camels showed a preference for intermediate productivity values (NDVI, habitat type) and landscape parameters (distance to water, elevation) and an avoidance of steep slopes. Our telemetry results suggest that wild camels still range throughout the entire Great Gobi A Strictly Protected Area (SPA), are highly mobile, and very sensitive to human disturbance. Their habitat preference may be a trade-off between dietary and safety requirements. Small sample size did not allow the development of a full habitat model testing all variables simultaneously and we urgently call for more data from additional wild camels as a foundation for evidence driven conservation actions.

Global assessment of the non-equilibrium concept in rangelands

The non-equilibrium concept of rangeland dynamics predicts that the potential for grazing-induced degradation is low in rangelands with relatively variable precipitation. To date, evidence in support of the non-equilibrium concept has been inconsistent. Using a standardized protocol, including a newly developed global map of rainfall variability, we reviewed the incidence of degradation in relation to rainfall variability across 58 published studies. We distinguished between (1) zonal degradation (i.e., degradation independent of water and key resources), (2) degradation in the presence of key resources, and (3) degradation in the presence of water. For studies not affected by proximity to permanent water or key resources, we found strong support for the non-equilibrium concept for rangelands. Zonal degradation was absent at CV (coefficient of variation) values above 33%, which has been proposed as a critical threshold. Grazing degradation was almost entirely restricted to areas with relatively stable annual precipitation as expressed by a low CV, or to rangelands with key resources or water points nearby. To better understand rangeland dynamics, we recommend that future studies use globally comparable measures of degradation and rainfall variability. Our work underlines that rangelands with relatively stable rainfall patterns, and those with access to water or key resources, are potentially vulnerable to degradation. Grazing management in such areas should incorporate strategic rest periods. Such rest periods effectively mimic natural fluctuations in herbivore populations, which are a defining characteristic of non-degraded rangelands occurring under highly variable precipitation regimes.

First stable isotope analysis of Asiatic wild ass tail hair from the Mongolian Gobi

Stable isotope analysis has become a powerful tool to study feeding ecology, water use or movement pattern in contemporary, historic and ancient species. Certain hair and teeth grow continuously, and when sampled longitudinally can provide temporally explicit information on dietary regime and movement pattern. In an initial trial, we analysed a tail sample of an Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus) from the Mongolian Gobi. We found seasonal variations in H, C and N isotope patterns, likely being the result of temporal variations in available feeds, water supply and possibly physiological status. Thus stable isotope analysis shows promise to study the comparative ecology of the three autochthonous equid species in the Mongolian Gobi.

The danger of having all your eggs in one basket--winter crash of the re-introduced Przewalski's horses in the Mongolian Gobi

Large mammals re-introduced into harsh and unpredictable environments are vulnerable to stochastic effects, particularly in times of global climate change. The Mongolian Gobi is home to several rare large ungulates such as re-introduced Przewalski's horses (Equus ferus przewalskii) and Asiatic wild asses (Equus hemionus), but also to a millennium-old semi-nomadic livestock herding culture.The Gobi is prone to large inter-annual environmental fluctuations, but the winter 2009/2010 was particularly severe. Millions of livestock died and the Przewalski's horse population in the Gobi crashed. We used spatially explicit livestock loss statistics, ranger survey data and GPS telemetry to provide insight into the effect of a catastrophic climate event on the two sympatric wild equid species and the livestock population in light of their different space use strategies.Herders in and around the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area lost on average 67% of their livestock. Snow depth varied locally, resulting in livestock losses following an east-west gradient. Herders had few possibilities for evasion, as competition for available winter camps was high. Przewalski's horses used three different winter ranges, two in the east and one in the west. Losses averaged 60%, but differed hugely between east and west. Space use of Przewalski's horses was extremely conservative, as groups did not attempt to venture beyond their known home ranges. Asiatic wild asses seemed to have suffered few losses by shifting their range westwards.The catastrophic winter 2009/2010 provided a textbook example for how vulnerable small and spatially confined populations are in an environment prone to environmental fluctuations and catastrophes. This highlights the need for disaster planning by local herders, multiple re-introduction sites with spatially dispersed populations for re-introduced Przewalski's horses, and a landscape-level approach beyond protected area boundaries to allow for migratory or nomadic movements in Asiatic wild asses.

Connectivity of the Asiatic wild ass population in the Mongolian Gobi

Long-distance migrations of wildlife have been identified as important biological phenomena, but their conservation remains a major challenge. The Mongolian Gobi is one of the last refuges for the Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus) and other threatened migratory mammals. Using historic and current distribution ranges, population genetics, and telemetry data we assessed the connectivity of the wild ass population in the context of natural and anthropogenic landscape features and the existing network of protected areas. In the Mongolian Gobi mean biomass production is highly correlated with human and livestock density and seems to predict wild ass occurrence at the upper level. The current wild ass distribution range largely falls into areas below the 250 gC/m(2)/year productivity isoline, suggesting that under the present land use more productive areas have become unavailable for wild asses. Population genetics results identified two subpopulations and delineated a genetic boundary between the Dzungarian and Transaltai Gobi for which the most likely explanation are the mountain ranges separating the two areas. Home ranges and locations of 19 radiomarked wild asses support the assumed restricting effects of more productive habitats and mountain ranges and additionally point towards a barrier effect of fences. Furthermore, telemetry data shows that in the Dzungarian and Transaltai Gobi individual wild ass rarely ventured outside of the protected areas, whereas in the southeast Gobi asses only spend a small fraction of their time within the protected area network. Conserving the continuity of the wild ass population will need a landscape level approach, also including multi-use landscapes outside of protected areas, particularly in the southeast Gobi. In the southwest Gobi, allowing for openings in the border fence to China and managing the border area as an ecological corridor would connect three large protected areas together covering over 70,000 km(2) of wild ass habitat.

Satellite Telemetry of Large Mammals in Mongolia: What Expectations Should We Have for Collar Function?

The rapid pace of the development of satellite wildlife tracking tools has left little time for thorough testing of new equipment and identifying possible sources of technical failures. In the Gobi and Eastern Steppe region of Mongolia we deployed 98 satellite collars, collecting animal locations using the Doppler based Argos (n = 29) or the global positioning system (GPS; n = 69), on 45 Asiatic wild asses (Equus hemionus), 34 Mongolian gazelles (Procapra gutturosa), 15 Przewalski's horses (E. ferus przewalskii), eight wild Bactrian camels (Camelus ferus), and two wolves (Canis lupus). Although, we collected valuable data from little-known species in a remote environment, of 98 collars deployed, only 29 worked as good as or better than expected whereas 69 were subject to technical problems. The majority of problems had to do with a reduced performance of the Argos component (n = 12), with both the Argos and the GPS components (n = 1), or with the Argos component in combination with another unknown problem (n = 12). Further problems were caused by human error during manufacturing or deployment (n = 10), software bugs (n = 7), mechanical failures (n = 5), poor GPS performance (n = 1) and premature failures for unknown reasons (3 ≤ n ≤ 21). The better performance of Argos only collars on Mongolian gazelles and of collars not attached to an animal suggest that a large body mass reduces the Argos signal below a critical threshold. Consequently, we presently would not recommend the use of collars depending on an Argos unit for data collection or transfer on large bodied ungulates in central Asia. Although, several premature failures may have been caused by animals being poached, our failure rate remains high and indicates that managers and researchers need to be aware that there is a high risk of equipment failure when applying newly emerging satellite tracking technology. This implies logistic and financial uncertainties which may be difficult to explain to the scientific community, the public, management- and funding agencies alike. We recommend the development of a web-based platform where users and producers of telemetry products can quickly post and exchange their experiences.

High mitochondrial differentiation levels between wild and domestic Bactrian camels: a basis for rapid detection of maternal hybridization

Hybridization between wild species and their domestic congeners often threatens the gene pool of the wild species. The last wild Bactrian camel (Camelus ferus) populations in Mongolia and China are examples of populations facing such a hybridization threat. To address this key issue in the conservation of wild camels, we analysed wild, hybrid and domestic Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus) originating from Mongolia, China and Austria. Through screening of an 804-base-pair mitochondrial fragment, we identified eight mitochondrial haplotypes and found high sequence divergence (1.9%) between C. ferus and C. bactrianus. On the basis of a mitochondrial DNA sequence fixed difference, we developed a diagnostic PCR restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) assay to differentiate between wild and domestic camel samples. We applied the assay to 81 individuals and confirmed the origin of all samples including five hybrids with known maternal ancestry. The PCR-RFLP system was effective for both traditional (blood, skin) and non-invasive samples (faeces, hair), as well as for museum specimens. Our results demonstrate high levels of mitochondrial differentiation between wild and domestic Bactrian camels and that maternal hybridization can be detected by a rapid and reliable PCR-RFLP system.

Przewalski's Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) Re-introduction in the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area: from Species to Ecosystem Conservation

The Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii Poljakov, 1881), or "Takhi" in Mongolian, became extinct in the wild by the mid 1960's. The last recorded sightings of Przewalski's horses occurred in the Dzungarian Gobi desert in SW Mongolia, today's Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area (SPA). A re-introduction program was initiated in 1992 and the first group of captive-born Przewalski's horses was airlifted to the SPA. Given the logistical challenges associated with such a venture, the initial project focus has been on transport logistics and the well-being of the re-introduced horses. Today, conservation efforts are spread over the entire protected area. Present day efforts include other mammals, vegetation and the local people. Due to its important symbolic value in Mongolian culture, the Przewalski's horse became an important flagship species for the protected area's conservation and management.

Differentiation of Meat Samples from Domestic Horses (Equus caballus) and Asiatic Wild Asses (Equus hemionus) Using a Species-Specific Restriction Site in the Mitochondrial Cytochrome b Region

Recent studies suggest that Asiatic wild asses (Equus hemionus) are being increasingly poached in a commercial fashion. Part of the meat is believed to reach the meat markets in the capital Ulaanbaatar. To test this hypothesis, we collected 500 meat samples between February and May 2006. To differentiate between domestic horse (Equus caballus) and wild ass meat, we developed a restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) assay based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). We amplified and sequenced a cytochrome b fragment (335 bp) and carried out a multialignment of the generated sequences for the domestic horse, the Asiatic wild ass, the domestic donkey (Equus asinus) and the Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii). We detected a species-specific restriction site (AatII) for the Asiatic wild ass, resulting in a specific restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) band pattern. This RFLP assay represents a rapid and cost-effective method to detect wild ass meat. All of the 500 meat samples we collected and analysed within this pilot project proved to be domestic horsemeat as declared by the sales people. Thus, either the assumption that wild ass meat is sold as "cheap horse meat" is wrong, or we picked the wrong markets, products or season.