TASK-1, a two-pore domain K+ channel, is modulated by multiple neurotransmitters in motoneurons

Inhibition of "leak" potassium (K+) channels is a widespread CNS mechanism by which transmitters induce slow excitation. We show that TASK-1, a two pore domain K+ channel, provides a prominent leak K+ current and target for neurotransmitter modulation in hypoglossal motoneurons (HMs). TASK-1 mRNA is present at high levels in motoneurons, including HMs, which express a K+ current with pH- and voltage-dependent properties virtually identical to those of the cloned channel. This pH-sensitive K+ channel was fully inhibited by serotonin, norepinephrine, substance P, thyrotropin-releasing hormone, and 3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine, a group I metabotropic glutamate receptor agonist. The neurotransmitter effect was entirely reconstituted in HEK 293 cells coexpressing TASK-1 and the TRH-R1 receptor. Given its expression patterns and the widespread prevalence of this neuromodulatory mechanism, TASK-1 also likely supports this action in other CNS neurons.

TASK-1 is a highly modulated pH-sensitive 'leak' K(+) channel expressed in brainstem respiratory neurons

Central respiratory chemoreceptors adjust respiratory drive in a homeostatic response to alterations in brain pH and/or P(CO(2)). Multiple brainstem sites are proposed as neural substrates for central chemoreception, but molecular substrates that underlie chemosensitivity in respiratory neurons have not been identified. In rat brainstem neurons expressing transcripts for TASK-1, a two-pore domain K(+) channel, we characterized K(+) currents with kinetic and voltage-dependent properties identical to cloned rat TASK-1 currents. Native currents were sensitive to acid and alkaline shifts in the same physiological pH range as TASK-1 (pK approximately 7.4), and native and cloned pH-sensitive currents were modulated similarly by neurotransmitters and inhalational anesthetics. This pH-sensitive TASK-1 channel is an attractive candidate to mediate chemoreception because it is functionally expressed in respiratory-related neurons, including airway motoneurons and putative chemoreceptor neurons of locus coeruleus (LC). Inhibition of TASK-1 channels by extracellular acidosis can depolarize and increase excitability in those cells, thereby contributing to chemoreceptor function in LC neurons and directly enhancing respiratory motoneuronal output.

Uteroplacental insufficiency affects epigenetic determinants of chromatin structure in brains of neonatal and juvenile IUGR rats

Intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) increases the risk of neuroendocrine reprogramming. In the rat, IUGR leads to persistent changes in cerebral mRNA levels. This suggests lasting alterations in IUGR cerebral transcriptional regulation, which may result from changes in chromatin structure. Candidate nutritional triggers for these changes include altered cerebral zinc and one-carbon metabolite levels. We hypothesized that IUGR affects cerebral chromatin structure in neonatal and postnatal rat brains. Rats were rendered IUGR by bilateral uterine artery ligation; controls (Con) underwent sham surgery. At day of life 0 (d0), we measured cerebral DNA methylation, histone acetylation, expression of chromatin-affecting enzymes, and cerebral levels of one-carbon metabolites and zinc. At day of life 21 (d21), we measured cerebral DNA methylation and histone acetylation, as well as the caloric content of Con and IUGR rat breast milk. At d0, IUGR significantly decreased genome-wide and CpG island methylation, as well as increased histone 3 lysine 9 (H3/K9) and histone 3 lysine 14 (H3/K14) acetylation in the hippocampus and periventricular white matter, respectively. IUGR also decreased expression of the chromatin-affecting enzymes DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1), methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2), and histone deacetylase (HDAC)1 in association with increased cerebral levels of zinc. In d21 female IUGR rats, cerebral CpG DNA methylation remained lower, whereas H3/K9 and H3/K14 hyperacetylation persisted in hippocampus and white matter, respectively. In d21 male rats, IUGR decreased acetylation of H3/K9 and H3/K14 in these respective regions compared with controls. Despite these differences, caloric, fat, and protein content were similar in breast milk from Con and IUGR dams. We conclude that IUGR results in postnatal changes in cerebral chromatin structure and that these changes are sex specific.

Receptor-mediated inhibition of G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channels involves G(alpha)q family subunits, phospholipase C, and a readily diffusible messenger

G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying K+ (GIRK) channels can be activated or inhibited by distinct classes of receptor (G(alpha)i/o- and G(alpha)q-coupled), providing dynamic regulation of cellular excitability. Receptor-mediated activation involves direct effects of G(beta)gamma subunits on GIRK channels, but mechanisms involved in GIRK channel inhibition have not been fully elucidated. An HEK293 cell line that stably expresses GIRK1/4 channels was used to test G protein mechanisms that mediate GIRK channel inhibition. In cells transiently or stably cotransfected with 5-HT1A (G(alpha)i/o-coupled) and TRH-R1 (G(alpha)q-coupled) receptors, 5-HT (5-hydroxytryptamine; serotonin) enhanced GIRK channel currents, whereas thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) inhibited both basal and 5-HT-activated GIRK channel currents. Inhibition of GIRK channel currents by TRH primarily involved signaling by G(alpha)q family subunits, rather than G(beta)gamma dimers: GIRK channel current inhibition was diminished by Pasteurella multocida toxin, mimicked by constitutively active members of the G(alpha)q family, and reduced by minigene constructs that disrupt G(alpha)q signaling, but was completely preserved in cells expressing constructs that interfere with signaling by G(beta)gamma subunits. Inhibition of GIRK channel currents by TRH and constitutively active G(alpha)q was reduced by, an inhibitor of phospholipase C (PLC). Moreover, TRH- R1-mediated GIRK channel inhibition was diminished by minigene constructs that reduce membrane levels of the PLC substrate phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate, further implicating PLC. However, we found no evidence for involvement of protein kinase C, inositol trisphosphate, or intracellular calcium. Although these downstream signaling intermediaries did not contribute to receptor-mediated GIRK channel inhibition, bath application of TRH decreased GIRK channel activity in cell-attached patches. Together, these data indicate that receptor-mediated inhibition of GIRK channels involves PLC activation by G(alpha) subunits of the G(alpha)q family and suggest that inhibition may be communicated at a distance to GIRK channels via unbinding and diffusion of phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate away from the channel.

Activation and inhibition of G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium (Kir3) channels by G protein beta gamma subunits

G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels can be activated or inhibited by different classes of receptors, suggesting a role for G proteins in determining signaling specificity. Because G protein betagamma subunits containing either beta1 or beta2 with multiple Ggamma subunits activate GIRK channels, we hypothesized that specificity might be imparted by beta3, beta4, or beta5 subunits. We used a transfection assay in cell lines expressing GIRK channels to examine effects of dimers containing these Gbeta subunits. Inwardly rectifying K(+) currents were increased in cells expressing beta3 or beta4, with either gamma2 or gamma11. Purified, recombinant beta3gamma2 and beta4gamma2 bound directly to glutathione-S-transferase fusion proteins containing N- or C-terminal cytoplasmic domains of GIRK1 and GIRK4, indicating that beta3 and beta4, like beta1, form dimers that bind to and activate GIRK channels. By contrast, beta5-containing dimers inhibited GIRK channel currents. This inhibitory effect was obtained with either beta5gamma2 or beta5gamma11, was observed with either GIRK1,4 or GIRK1,2 channels, and was evident in the context of either basal or agonist-induced currents, both of which were mediated by endogenous Gbetagamma subunits. In cotransfection assays, beta5gamma2 suppressed beta1gamma2-activated GIRK currents in a dose-dependent manner consistent with competitive inhibition. Moreover, we found that beta5gamma2 could bind to the same GIRK channel cytoplasmic domains as other, activating Gbetagamma subunits. Thus, beta5-containing dimers inhibit Gbetagamma-stimulated GIRK channels, perhaps by directly binding to the channels. This suggests that beta5-containing dimers could act as competitive antagonists of other Gbetagamma dimers on GIRK channels.

Characterization of Th17 and FoxP3(+) Treg Cells in Paediatric Psoriasis Patients

Psoriasis is one of the most common inflammatory skin conditions affecting both children and adults. Growing evidence indicates that T-helper 17 (Th17) cells and CD4(+) CD25(+) regulatory T (Treg) cells play an important role in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. However, the relationship between Th17 and Treg cells and their dynamic variations in paediatric psoriasis remain unclear. In this study, we found that both Th17 and FoxP3(+) Treg cells and the ratio of Th17 to Treg cell frequency in the peripheral circulation were increased in patients with paediatric psoriasis and were positively correlated with the disease severity. The function of Treg to suppress CD4(+) CD25(-) T cell proliferation and IFN-γ secretion was impaired during the onset of psoriasis. After disease remission, both the Th17 and Treg cell frequencies were decreased, and the suppressive function of the Treg cells was obviously restored. However, neither Treg cells from the disease onset nor those after remission can regulate IL-17 secretion by CD4(+) T cells. These findings will further our understanding of the associations between Th17 and Treg cells in paediatric psoriasis and their influence on disease severity.

Identification of glomerular lesions and intrinsic glomerular cell types in kidney diseases via deep learning

Identification of glomerular lesions and structures is a key point for pathological diagnosis, treatment instructions, and prognosis evaluation in kidney diseases. These time‐consuming tasks require a more accurate and reproducible quantitative analysis method. We established derivation and validation cohorts composed of 400 Chinese patients with immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN) retrospectively. Deep convolutional neural networks and biomedical image processing algorithms were implemented to locate glomeruli, identify glomerular lesions (global and segmental glomerular sclerosis, crescent, and none of the above), identify and quantify different intrinsic glomerular cells, and assess a network‐based mesangial hypercellularity score in periodic acid–Schiff (PAS)‐stained slides. Our framework achieved 93.1% average precision and 94.9% average recall for location of glomeruli, and a total Cohen's kappa of 0.912 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.892–0.932] for glomerular lesion classification. The evaluation of global, segmental glomerular sclerosis, and crescents achieved Cohen's kappa values of 1.0, 0.776, 0.861, and 95% CI of (1.0, 1.0), (0.727, 0.825), (0.824, 0.898), respectively. The well‐designed neural network can identify three kinds of intrinsic glomerular cells with 92.2% accuracy, surpassing the about 5–11% average accuracy of junior pathologists. Statistical interpretation shows that there was a significant difference (P value < 0.0001) between this analytic renal pathology system (ARPS) and four junior pathologists for identifying mesangial and endothelial cells, while that for podocytes was similar, with P value = 0.0602. In addition, this study indicated that the ratio of mesangial cells, endothelial cells, and podocytes within glomeruli from IgAN was 0.41:0.36:0.23, and the performance of mesangial score assessment reached a Cohen's kappa of 0.42 and 95% CI (0.18, 0.69). The proposed computer‐aided diagnosis system has feasibility for quantitative analysis and auxiliary recognition of glomerular pathological features. © 2020 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Microwave dielectric characterisation of 3D-printed BaTiO3/ABS polymer composites

3D printing is used extensively in product prototyping and continues to emerge as a viable option for the direct manufacture of final parts. It is known that dielectric materials with relatively high real permittivity—which are required in important technology sectors such as electronics and communications—may be 3D printed using a variety of techniques. Among these, the fused deposition of polymer composites is particularly straightforward but the range of dielectric permittivities available through commercial feedstock materials is limited. Here we report on the fabrication of a series of composites composed of various loadings of BaTiO₃ microparticles in the polymer acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), which may be used with a commercial desktop 3D printer to produce printed parts containing user-defined regions with high permittivity. The microwave dielectric properties of printed parts with BaTiO₃ loadings up to 70 wt% were characterised using a 15 GHz split post dielectric resonator and had real relative permittivities in the range 2.6–8.7 and loss tangents in the range 0.005–0.027. Permittivities were reproducible over the entire process, and matched those of bulk unprinted materials, to within ~1%, suggesting that the technique may be employed as a viable manufacturing process for dielectric composites.

G beta association and effector interaction selectivities of the divergent G gamma subunit G gamma(13)

G gamma(13) is a divergent member of the G gamma subunit family considered to be a component of the gustducin G-protein heterotrimer involved in bitter and sweet taste reception in taste bud cells. G gamma(13) contains a C-terminal asparagine-proline-tryptophan (NPW) tripeptide, a hallmark of RGS protein G gamma-like (GGL) domains which dimerize exclusively with G beta(5) subunits. In this study, we investigated the functional range of G gamma(13) assembly with G beta subunits using multiple assays of G beta association and G beta gamma effector modulation. G gamma(13) was observed to associate with all five G beta subunits (G beta(1-5)) upon co-translation in vitro, as well as function with all five G beta subunits in the modulation of Kir3.1/3.4 (GIRK1/4) potassium and N-type (alpha(1B)) calcium channels. Multiple G beta/G gamma(13) pairings were also functional in cellular assays of phospholipase C (PLC) beta 2 activation and inhibition of G alpha(q)-stimulated PLC beta 1 activity. However, upon cellular co-expression of G gamma(13) with different G beta subunits, only G beta(1)/G gamma(13), G beta(3)/G gamma(13), and G beta(4)/G gamma(13) pairings were found to form stable dimers detectable by co-immunoprecipitation under high-detergent cell lysis conditions. Collectively, these data indicate that G gamma(13) forms functional G beta gamma dimers with a range of G beta subunits. Coupled with our detection of G gamma(13) mRNA in mouse and human brain and retina, these results imply that this divergent G gamma subunit can act in signal transduction pathways other than that dedicated to taste reception in sensory lingual tissue.

Wetting, mixing, and phase transitions in Langmuir-Gibbs films

Millimolar bulk concentrations of the surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) induce spreading of alkanes, H(CH(2))(n)H (denoted C(n)) 12< or =n< or =21, on the water surface, which is not otherwise wet by these alkanes. The novel Langmuir-Gibbs film (LGF) formed is a liquidlike monolayer comprising both alkanes and CTAB tails. Upon cooling, an ordering transition occurs, yielding a hexagonally packed, quasi-2D crystal. For 11< or =n< or =17 this surface-frozen LGF is a crystalline monolayer. For 18< or =n< or =21 the LGF is a bilayer with a crystalline, pure-alkane, upper monolayer, and a liquidlike lower monolayer. The phase diagram and film structure were determined by x-ray, ellipsometry, and surface tension measurements. A thermodynamic theory accounts quantitatively for the observations.

Variations in the inferior pelvic pathway of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve: implications for laparoscopic hernia repair

Laparoscopic repair of inguinal hernias is gaining acceptance in the repertoire of the general surgeon. However, nerve entrapment sequelae have been reported and appear to be higher with the laparoscopic approach. Contributing factors include pelvic variations in nerve pathways and the use of staples. We examined the pelvic relations of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve (LFCN) to the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) and the iliopubic tract (IPT) because of the high morbidity of entrapment of this nerve, despite its low incidence. The LFCN, ASIS, and IPT were identified and their relationships measured in 48 male and 24 female cadavers ranging in age from 61 to 96 yr. The LFCN was located 1.7 (+/- 1.2) cm medial to the ASIS along the IPT and 1.4 (+/- 0.7) cm posterior (deep) to the IPT at this point, with no significant sex differences. The intrapelvic pathway of the LFCN, including its branches, varied widely so that in 18% of these specimens the LFCN was in either the vertical plane of the ASIS (13%) or in the plane of the IPT (5%). In 11% this nerve was within 1 cm of the ASIS. These data indicate that exclusive use of the ASIS as a guide for staple placement may result in entrapment of this nerve or its branches.

Multiplication by eye and by ear for Chinese-speaking and English-speaking adults

English-speaking (n = 32) and Chinese-speaking adults (n = 32) solved single-digit multiplication problems. In one condition, problems were presented as visual digits (e.g., 8 x 9). In the other condition, problems were presented as auditory number words in the participant's first language (e.g., /eit/ /taimz/ /nain/). Chinese-speaking adults made proportionately more operand-intrusion errors (e.g., 4 x 8 = 24) than English-speaking adults. Both groups made more operand-intrusion errors with auditory than with visual presentation. These findings are similar to those found when participants solve problems presented as visual number words (e.g., eight x nine), suggesting that in both cases the activation of phonological codes interferes with processing.

Carbon-centered radicals in isolated soy proteins

Solid-state electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy of commercial samples of isolated soy proteins (ISP) revealed a symmetrical free-radical signal typical of carbon-centered radicals (g= 2.005) ranging from 2.96 x 10(14) to 6.42 x 10(14) spins/g. The level of free radicals in ISP was 14 times greater than similar radicals in sodium caseinate, 29 times greater than egg albumin, and about 100 times greater levels than casein. Nine soy protein powdered drink mixes contained similar types of free radicals up to 4.10 x 10(15) spins/g of drink mix, or up to 6.4 times greater than the highest free-radical content found in commercial ISP. ISP samples prepared in the laboratory contained trapped radicals similar to the levels in commercial ISP samples. When ISP was hydrated in 2.3 mM sodium erythorbate or 8.3 mM L-cysteine, frozen and dried, the level of trapped free radicals increased by about 17- and 19-fold, respectively. The ESR spectrum of defatted soybean flakes contained overlapping signals from the primary free-radical peak (g= 2.005) and a sextet pattern typical of manganese-II. The manganese signal was reduced in the laboratory ISP and very weak in the commercial ISP.

Peroxiredoxin 1 aggravates acute kidney injury by promoting inflammation through Mincle/Syk/NF-κB signaling

Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are a cause of acute kidney injury (AKI). Our knowledge of these DAMPs remains incomplete. Here, we report serum peroxiredoxin 1 (Prdx1) as a novel DAMP for AKI. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and kidney ischemia/reperfusion injury instigated AKI with concurrent increases in serum Prdx1 and reductions of Prdx1 expression in kidney tubular epithelial cells. Genetic knockout of Prdx1 or use of a Prdx1-neutralizing antibody protected mice from AKI and this protection was impaired by introduction of recombinant Prdx1 (rPrdx1). Mechanistically, lipopolysaccharide increased serum and kidney proinflammatory cytokines, macrophage infiltration, and the content of M1 macrophages. All these events were suppressed in Prdx1-/- mice and renewed upon introduction of rPrdx1. In primary peritoneal macrophages, rPrdx1 induced M1 polarization, activated macrophage-inducible C-type lectin (Mincle) signaling, and enhanced proinflammatory cytokine production. Prdx1 interacted with Mincle to initiate acute kidney inflammation. Of note, rPrdx1 upregulated Mincle and the spleen tyrosine kinase Syk system in the primary peritoneal macrophages, while knockdown of Mincle abolished the increase in activated Syk. Additionally, rPrdx1 treatment enhanced the downstream events of Syk, including transcription factor NF-κB signaling pathways. Furthermore, serum Prdx1 was found to be increased in patients with AKI; the increase of which was associated with kidney function decline and inflammatory biomarkers in patient serum. Thus, kidney-derived serum Prdx1 contributes to AKI at least in part by activating Mincle signaling and downstream pathways.

Small heat shock proteins and the endoplasmic reticulum: potential attractive therapeutic targets?

The endoplasmic reticulum(ER) is crucial for protein and lipid synthesis, folding and cellular homeostasis. Function impairment of ER would induce ER stress, which might play an important role in many different pathological states. Small heat shock proteins (sHsps) are known to be widely expressed throughout many tissues. SHsps are found to regulate many different pathological and pathophysiological processes and they are supposed to be potential therapeutic targets. Recent studies indicate that multiple sHsps localize to the mammalian and plant ER and sHsps confer protection against ER stress in multiple cellular processes. The mechanisms responsible for the cytoprotective effects of sHsps are related to maintaining ER homeostasis. Improved understanding of sHsps-related cytoprotective action on ER and successful strategies which could specifically target components of ER stress signalling responses amelioration of their toxic effects by sHsps is of great importance in the development of therapeutic approach for the disorders induced by dysfunction of ER.

Development of a new methanethiol quantification method using ethanethiol as an internal standard

Development of a new method to quantify methanethiol in which ethanethiol was employed as an internal standard is reported. Recovery yields for methanethiol from an aqueous model system and a soy protein concentrate (SPC) aqueous slurry determined with this method ranged from 97 to 107% and from 103 to 121%, respectively. The methanethiol content of two commercial SPCs and two commercial soy protein isolate (SPI) samples, on a dry basis, ranged from 835 to 1190 times greater than the odor threshold for methanethiol. Relative standard deviations for quantifying methanethiol with the method from these samples were <5%, indicating its good reproducibility in quantifying methanethiol from soy protein products. Also investigated in the current study was the feasibility of using 5',5-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB, Ellman's reagent) to determine the concentration of methanethiol in the aqueous solutions used to prepare the standard curve for quantifying methanethiol from soy protein products. The concentrations of methanethiol obtained from Ellman's reagent method were comparable with those from a weighing method and theoretical calculation.

Manufacture of electrical and magnetic graded and anisotropic materials for novel manipulations of microwaves

Spatial transformations (ST) provide a design framework to generate a required spatial distribution of electrical and magnetic properties of materials to effect manipulations of electromagnetic waves. To obtain the electromagnetic properties required by these designs, the most common materials approach has involved periodic arrays of metal-containing subwavelength elements. While aspects of ST theory have been confirmed using these structures, they are often disadvantaged by narrowband operation, high losses and difficulties in implementation. An all-dielectric approach involves weaker interactions with applied fields, but may offer more flexibility for practical implementation. This paper investigates manufacturing approaches to produce composite materials that may be conveniently arranged spatially, according to ST-based designs. A key aim is to highlight the limitations and possibilities of various manufacturing approaches, to constrain designs to those that may be achievable. The article focuses on polymer-based nano- and microcomposites in which interactions with microwaves are achieved by loading the polymers with high-permittivity and high-permeability particles, and manufacturing approaches based on spray deposition, extrusion, casting and additive manufacture.

Clinical features and prognosis analysis of 57 patients with primary tracheal tumors

Background

Primary tracheal tumor (PTT) is a rare disease with poor prognosis. Its clinical features are variable. Treatment strategies for patients with PTTs are not standardized. The purpose of this study was to explore the clinical features, management and prognosis of PTT.

Methods

From 2009 to 2019, 57 patients were diagnosed with PTTs at Xiangya Hospital, China. A retrospective review of their medical records was performed.

Results

Among the 57 patients, 8 (14.0%) had benign tumors and 49 (86.0%) had malignant. Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) (n=20, 40.8%) and adenoid cystic carcinoma (ACC) (n=10, 20.4%) were the most common histologic types. Seven (87.5%) of the benign PTT patients underwent bronchoscopic intervention and had no further complications. The 5-year survival rate for malignant PTTs was 13.8%. Patients who had ACC tended to have better survival rates than those with SCC, although the difference was not statistically significant (P=0.104). Compared with tumors located in upper third of the trachea, tumors located in the lower portion showed worse survival (P=0.0003). Patients who underwent complete surgical resection had significantly better survival compared to non-surgical therapies (P=0.016). The combination of chemoradiotherapy and bronchoscopic intervention was better than chemoradiotherapy alone (P=0.028).

Conclusions

Histologic type, tumor location and treatment approaches likely influence clinical outcomes. Within the cohort described here, complete surgical resection was the optimal therapy for PTTs. For unresectable malignant PTTS, chemoradiotherapy with bronchoscopic intervention was a superior modality. Given the poor 5-year survival of PTT, larger-scale, multi-center studies are warranted to validate our findings and identify optimal therapeutic interventions.