Documentation and quantitative analysis of local ethnozoological knowledge among traditional healers of Theni district, Tamil Nadu, India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study investigated the use of animals among the traditional healers in Theni district of Tamil Nadu, India. The data regarding the medicinal animals/animal products were documented and their usages were analyzed quantitatively.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Based on free list interviews with the traditional healers, we documented the medicinal usage of animals/animal products and calculated the indices such as informant consensus factor (Fic) to determine the consensus over the species for an illness category, as well as the Index Agreement on Remedies (IAR) to determine the extent of potential utilization of each species.

RESULTS

In this study, 69 medicinal animals/animal products were documented with the help of standardized questionnaires among the local healers. The results were tabulated and Fic value for each illness category was calculated. Three illness categories viz., jaundice (milk of Capra aegagrus hircus), orthopedics (egg white and meat of Gallus gallus domesticus) and pediatrics (milk of Equus africanus asinus) had got high Fic values. Fifteen illness categories had moderate Fic values. Highly cited animals in these illness categories were: Rusa unicolor (antiemetic), Reticulitermes spp. (diabetes), flesh of Varanus benghalensis (oral ailments), milk (eye ailments, fever) and urine (antidote) of Homo sepians, meat of Trachypithecus johnii (respiratory ailments), various parts of C. aegagrus hircus (blood ailments, coolants, diarrhea, pulmonary and urinary ailments), flesh of Chamaeleon zeyalnica (neural ailments), meat of Passer domesticus (aphrodisiac), curd and dung of Bos primigenius taurus (dermatological ailments), meat of G. domesticus (musculo-skeletal disorders, analgesic), meat of Lissemys punctata (hemorrhoids), and Pherthima posthuma (psychological ailments). Six illness categories had low Fic values.

CONCLUSION

This study indicated that the animals are still being used by the local healers of Theni district, to treat various illnesses. Cross-disciplinary approaches to explore the full potential of animal-derived medicines will help to improve the health of local people.

Consensus analysis of sastric formulations used by non-institutionally trained siddha medical practitioners of Virudhunagar and Tirunelveli districts of Tamil Nadu, India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Siddha system of traditional medicine has been practiced in Tamil Nadu. This system of medicine has a high number of non-institutionally trained practitioners but studies on their traditional medicinal knowledge are not adequate. The present study is aimed to document and analyze the sastric (traditional) formulations used by the non-institutionally trained siddha medical practitioners in Virudhunagar and Tirunelveli districts of Tamil Nadu, India.

METHODS

After obtaining prior informed consent, interviews were conducted with 115 non-institutionally trained siddha medical practitioners about the sastric formulations used by them for the treatment. Successive free listing method was adopted to collect the data and the data were analyzed by calculating Informant Consensus Factor (Fic) and Informant Agreement Ratio (IAR).

RESULTS

The study documented data regarding 194 sastric formulations and they were classified into plant, mineral and animal based formulations. Quantitative analysis showed that 62.5% of the formulations were plant based, while the mineral based formulations had a high mean number of citations and versatile uses. Gastrointestinal (12.0%), kapha (11.3%) and dermatological (10.8%) ailments had a high percentage of citations. Jaundice had a high Fic value (0.750) followed by the dermatological ailments. The illness categories with high Fic values under each type of formulation were as follows: jaundice, aphrodisiac and urinary ailments (plant based); jaundice, cuts & wounds and dermatological ailments (mineral based); and hemorrhoids, kapha ailments and heart ailments (animal based formulations). The scientific studies conducted with important formulations under each illness category are discussed.

CONCLUSION

The present study indicated the importance of some illnesses over the others and inclusion of new illnesses under each formulation. The ingredients used to prepare these formulations have shown varying degrees of scientific evidence; generally limited studies were available on the efficacy of them as formulations. Further in-depth studies on the formulations with high IAR value and Fic value of illness categories will be helpful to improve health status of the people.

Beneficial Antioxidative and Antiperoxidative Effect of Cinnamaldehyde Protect Streptozotocin-Induced Pancreatic β-Cells Damage in Wistar Rats

The present study was aimed to evaluate the antioxidant defense system of cinnamaldehyde in normal, diabetic rats and its possible protection of pancreatic β-cells against its gradual loss under diabetic conditions. In vitro free radical scavenging effect of cinnamaldehyde was determined using DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-dipicrylhydrazyl), superoxide radical, and nitric oxide radical. Streptozotocin (STZ) diabetic rats were orally administered with cinnamaldehyde at concentrations of 5, 10 and 20 mg/kg body weight for 45 days. At the end of the experiment, the levels of plasma lipid peroxides and antioxidants such as vitamin C, vitamin E, ceruloplasmin, catalase, superoxide dismutase, reduced glutathione and glutathione peroxidase were determined. A significant increase in the levels of plasma glucose, vitamin E, ceruloplasmin, and lipid peroxides and significant decrease in the levels of plasma insulin and reduced glutathione were observed in the diabetic rats. Also the activities of pancreatic antioxidant enzymes were altered in the STZ-induced diabetic rats. The altered enzyme activities were reverted to near-normal levels after treatment with cinnamaldehyde and glibenclamide. Histopathological studies also revealed a protective effect of cinnamaldehyde on pancreatic β-cells. Cinnamaldehyde enhances the antioxidant defense against reactive oxygen species produced under hyperglycemic conditions and thus protects pancreatic β-cells against their loss and exhibits antidiabetic properties.

Swertiamarin attenuates inflammation mediators via modulating NF-κB/I κB and JAK2/STAT3 transcription factors in adjuvant induced arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune and chronic inflammatory disease that leads to pannus formation followed by severe joint destruction, characterized by synovial hyperplasia, inflammation and angiogenesis. Swertiamarin is a secoiridoid glycoside that is used as an anti-inflammatory compound, mainly found in Enicostema axillare (Lam) A. Raynal, a medicinal plant used in Indian system of traditional medicine. In the present study, the effect of swertiamarin was evlauated in experimental adjuvant arthritis animal model by the estimation of biochemical (paw thickness, lysosomal enzymes, and urinary degradative products) parameters, proinflammatory cytokines and enzymes along with histopathological and radiographic observations. The proteins of phosphorylated NF-κB/IκB and JAK2/STAT3 transcription factors were also quantified from experimental animals as well as LPS induced RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. In in silico analysis, swertiamarin was docked with proinflammatory enzymes to confirm its potential. The administration of swertiamarin (2, 5, 10mg/kg bw) significantly (P⩽0.05) inhibited the levels of paw thickness, lysosomal enzymes and increased the body weight of experimental animals in a dose dependent manner. In molecular analysis, the treatment decreased the release of proinflammatory cytokines (IL1, TNF, IL-6) and proangiogenic enzymes (MMPs, iNOS, PGE2, PPARγ and COX-2); and also significantly (P⩽0.05) increased the levels of antiinflammatory proteins (IL-10, IL-4) when compared to the disease groups. The swertiamarin treatment significantly (P⩽0.05) inhibited the release of NF-κB p65, p-IκBα, p-JAK2 and p-STAT3 signaling proteins levels on both experimental animals and LPS induced cells. Histopathological and radiological analysis evidenced the curative effect of swertiamarin on bone destruction. The docking studies of swertiamarin on proinflammatory enzymes supported the results from the in vivo experiments. Thus the swertiamarin inhibited the development of arthritis by modulating NF-κB/IκB and JAK2/STAT3 signaling. These findings suggested that swertiamarin acted as an anti-rheumatic agent.

Antimicrobial and cytotoxicity properties of 2,3-dihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone isolated from Streptomyces galbus (ERINLG-127)

Streptomyces galbus ERINLG-127 was isolated from the soil samples of the Marapalam forest, Nilgiris, India. The ethyl acetate extract was subjected to activity-guided fractionation by column chromatography over silica gel. This led to the isolation of 2,3-dihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone as the active principle. The compound showed good antimicrobial activity against tested bacteria and fungi. The minimum inhibitory concentration values of isolated compound were 12.5 μg/mL against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhimurium, K. pneumoniae (ESBL-3971), K. pneumoniae (ESBL-3894) and Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The compound showed prominent cytotoxic activity in vitro against A549 lung adenocarcinoma cancer cell line. It showed 75.1 % activity at the dose of 100 μg/mL with IC50 value of 60 μg/mL. The isolated compound was subjected to molecular docking studies for the inhibition of TtgR and Topoisomerase IV enzymes which are targets for antimicrobials. Docking studies of the compound showed low docking energy indicating its usefulness as antimicrobial agent.

Microbicidal and anti-inflammatory effects of Actinomadura spadix (EHA-2) active metabolites from Himalayan soils, India

Actinomycetes play an essential role in producing several bioactive compounds. In the present study, microbicidal and anti-inflammatory effects of metabolites from actinomycetes were investigated. Actinomycetes were isolated from north eastern Himalayan soil samples, India. The actinomycetes were investigated for their microbicidal property by conventional method and the active actinomycetes were identified by 16s rDNA sequence analyses. Further the metabolites were extracted and fractionated to evaluate the antimicrobial potency; they were subjected to GC-MS analysis. The active fraction was evaluated for selective toxicity and anti-inflammatory potential. Among isolated actinomycetes, EHA-2 showed potent antimicrobial activity and was identified as Actinomadura spadix. Fraction-8 from ethyl acetate extract of EHA-2 showed 100% inhibition against Candida sp. (MIC-80 μg/mL) and Enterococcus faecalis (MIC-80 μg/mL). The expression of GAPDH in primary cells and 16s rRNA levels on E. faecalis treated with fraction-8 revealed no toxicity to the primary cells. Fraction-8 also suppressed the paw thickness on carrageenan induced animals and also controlled the release of NO, TNFα and IL-1β levels on LPS induced RAW 264.7 cell lines. GC-MS profile of fraction-8 showed the presence of an antimicrobial agent 3,6 di-isobutyl 2,5 piperazinedione, which is the first report in A. spadix. The actinomycetes isolate EHA-2 can be proceed further to produce antibiotics.

Ameliorative effect of Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Sm., an ethnomedicinal plant, in arthritic animals

Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Sm., is an ethnomedicinal plant used widely in Tamil Nadu to treat arthritis. The present study was aimed to evaluate the traditional claim of D. quercifolia rhizome water extract in adjuvant induced arthritic animals. Anti-arthritic effect was studied by assessing the levels of lysosomal enzymes, protein bound carbohydrates, urinary degradative collagen and serum cytokines on control and adjuvant induced arthritis. The paw swelling and body weight were also analyzed. The levels of ROS and lysosomal enzymes in neutrophils of control and adjuvant induced animals were also estimated. D. quercifolia rhizome water extract at doses of 100 and 200mg/kg reduced the paw thickness and elevated the mean body weight of arthritic rats. The treatment with extract showed a significant reduction in the levels of plasma and liver lysosomal enzymes as well as protein bound carbohydrates and urinary degradative collagen levels. The treatment reduced the levels of ROS and lysosomal enzymes in neutrophils significantly. The significant reduction in the levels of serum pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β) and the increment in the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) were also observed by the treatment. The present study supports the traditional claim of using D. quercifolia to treat rheumatism.

Quantitative ethnobotany of traditional Siddha medical practitioners from Radhapuram taluk of Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, India

ETHNOBOTANICAL RELEVANCE

The aim of the present study was to document the knowledge of traditional Siddha medical practitioners from Radhapuram taluk of Tirunelveli district in Tamil Nadu, India, and to quantitatively analyze the data to identify some useful leads for further studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Successive free listing was the method adopted for the interview. In this study, 84 traditional Siddha medical practitioners were included and their knowledge on medicinal plants was gathered. The data were assessed with the help of two indices viz., Informant Consensus Factor (F(ic)) and Informant Agreement on Remedies (IAR).

RESULTS

The present survey is in accordance with some of the aspects of our previous surveys. Regarding the demography of the informants, it exhibited unevenness in male-female ratio and majority of the informants were poorly educated. Practicing this system of medicine as part time job by majority of the informants might indicate the reduced social status of this medicinal system. The present study had recorded the usage of 217 species which were used to prepare 448 formulations, which in turn yielded 812 use reports. Conversion of use reports had yielded a total of 625 claims and 84.16% of the claims were 'singletons'. The illness category 'adjuvants' holds a high F(ic) value. Among the other illness categories, kapha ailments and dermatological ailments have a high percentage of use-reports. Ailments of blood, jaundice and fever were the other illness categories with high F(ic) values. Some of the claims viz., Mukia madarasepatana (kapha ailments), Mollugo nudicaulis (febrifuge), Indigofera asphalathoides (dermatological ailments), Aerva lanata (urinary ailments), Abutilon indicum (hemorrhoids) and Hybanthus enneaspermus (aphrodisiac), which have relatively high consensus can be taken up for further biomedical studies, since no substantial studies have been conducted on them.

CONCLUSION

One of the major aims of National Rural Health Mission is to implement traditional Indian system of medicines into the main stream. In such scenario, scientific validation of community-based local health traditions becomes necessary for their rational implementation. Through this study we have highlighted some claims which are at high use in the study area but having little scientific support. Studies on such claims will provide scientific base which in turn will be useful to improve the health of indigenous people.

Development of transgenic finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.) resistant to leaf blast disease

Finger millet plants conferring resistance to leaf blast disease have been developed by inserting a rice chitinase (chi11) gene through Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Plasmid pHyg-Chi.11 harbouring the rice chitinase gene under the control of maize ubiquitin promoter was introduced into finger millet using Agrobacterium strain LBA4404 (pSB1). Transformed plants were selected and regenerated on hygromycin-supplemented medium. Transient expression of transgene was confirmed by GUS histochemical staining. The incorporation of rice chitinase gene in R0 and R1 progenies was confirmed by PCR and Southern blot analyses. Expression of chitinase gene in finger millet was confirmed by Western blot analysis with a barley chitinase antibody. A leaf blast assay was also performed by challenging the transgenic plants with spores of Pyricularia grisea. The frequency of transient expression was 16.3% to 19.3%. Stable frequency was 3.5% to 3.9%. Southern blot analysis confirmed the integration of 3.1 kb chitinase gene. Western blot analysis detected the presence of 35 kDa chitinase enzyme. Chitinase activity ranged from 19.4 to 24.8. In segregation analysis, the transgenic R1 lines produced three resistant and one sensitive for hygromycin, confirming the normal Mendelian pattern of transgene segregation. Transgenic plants showed high level of resistance to leaf blast disease compared to control plants. This is the first study reporting the introduction of rice chitinase gene into finger millet for leaf blast resistance.

Protective effect of Enicostema axillare on mutagenicity of Salmonella typhimurium by increasing free radical scavenging abilities

CONTEXT

Enicostema axillare A. Raynal (Gentianaceae) has been used in the traditional Indian system of medicine as a depurative and for the treatment of skin diseases, tumors, intermittent fever, and helminthiasis.

OBJECTIVE

E. axillare was investigated for antimutagenic and antioxidant effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The antioxidant and antimutagenic activities of E. axillare fractions were determined by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay and Ames test using Salmonella typhimurium tester strains TA98 and TA100 against direct-acting mutagens, such as sodium azide (NaN₃), 4-nitro-O-phenylene diamine (NPD), and mutagen needing activation, such as 2-aminofluorene (2AF). Toxicity study of these fractions was also performed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The ethyl acetate fraction showed maximum antimutagenic effect by 88.25 and 84.46% (preincubation) and 85.13 and 84.47% (coincubation) of inhibition against NaN₃ and NPD-induced mutagenicity, respectively. Inhibition of S9-dependent mutagens such as 2AF was higher than direct-acting mutagens by the ethyl acetate fraction of E. axillare. It showed 90.25 and 92.00% of inhibition in the preincubation and coincubation experiments. The ethyl acetate fraction showed higher total antioxidant capacity (24.79 ± 0.29 µg) and low IC₅₀ value for DPPH radical scavenging assay (192.27 ± 3.67 µg). The overall effect of E. axillare fractions was found to be in the order: ethyl acetate > methanol > hexane in these assays. In subacute toxicity study, with oral administration of these fractions, no marked biochemical and histopathologic changes were observed.

CONCLUSION

The significant antimutagenic and antioxidant activities of E. axillare might provide a scientific validation for the traditional use of this plant.

Petroleum and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) degradation and naphthalene metabolism in Streptomyces sp. (ERI-CPDA-1) isolated from oil contaminated soil

Petroleum and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) degrading Streptomyces sp. isolate ERI-CPDA-1 was recovered from oil contaminated soil in Chennai, India. The degradation efficiencies were examined by GC-FID and the results showed that the isolate could remove 98.25% diesel oil, 99.14% naphthalene and 17.5% phenanthrene in 7 days at 30°C (0.1%). ERI-CPDA-1 was able to degrade naphthalene, phenanthrene and diesel oil and grow on petrol, diesel, kerosene, benzene, pyridine, methanol, ethanol, cyclohexane, tween-80, xylene, DMSO and toluene using them as sole carbon source. Effects of environmental condition on degradation of hydrocarbons (diesel oil, naphthalene and phenanthrene) were also studied at different pH, NaCl, temperature, concentration and incubation time. Degradation pathway for naphthalene has been proposed. Degradation metabolites were identified using GC-MS analysis of ethyl acetate extract of the cell free culture. The degradation products detected were benzaldehyde, catechol, phenylacetic acid and protocatechuic acid.

Immunomodulatory potential of Enicostema axillare (Lam.) A. Raynal, a traditional medicinal plant

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Enicostema axillare (Lam.) A. Raynal., (Gentianaceae) has been used in traditional Indian system of medicine as depurative and for the treatment of psoriasis, intermittent fever and cancer. Ethnobotanical survey conducted in Theni District indicated a high consensus for this plant as blood purifier and to treat dermatopathy and venereal infections. The present study evaluated the immunomodulatory activity of the methanol extract of Enicostema axillare.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vivo immunomodulatory activity of Enicostema axillare methanol extract (100 and 200mg/kg b.w) was evaluated by assessing its effect on the total and differential leukocyte count, organ weight, hemaggultinating antibody titer, plaque forming cells, quantitative hemolysis of SRBC and delayed type hypersensitivity. Sheep red blood cells (SRBC, 5×10(8)cells/0.1mL) were used to immunize the animals. In vitro immunomodulatory potential of the extract was studied using peritoneal macrophages by evaluating its effects on NBT reduction, NO production and cytokine release.

RESULTS

The animals treated with Enicostema axillare methanol extract showed a significant (P≤0.05) increase in weight of the thymus and spleen. The total leukocyte and lymphocyte count was increased significantly (P<0.005) by the treatment. There was no significant alteration in neutrophil count. A dose dependent increase in antibody titer value was observed. A decreased response to DTH reaction induced by SRBC was recorded. A potential phagocytic response was seen on treatment with the extracts at 10 and 25μg/mL. The extract inhibited the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and production of NO significantly in a dose dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggested that the methanol extract of Enicostema axillare acted on both humoral and cell mediated immune functions and decreased the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the peritoneal macrophages.

Antimicrobial activity of Ulopterol isolated from Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.: a traditional medicinal plant

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The leaves of Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. (Rutaceae) are widely used in folk medicine in India to treat various ailments like cough, malaria, indigestion, influenza lung diseases and rheumatism, fever, stomach ailments, cholera and diarrhea. In our earlier communication we have reported the antimicrobial study on the various extracts of the leaves and the isolation and identification of Flindersine, a quinolone alkaloid as the major active principle. In the present study, we report the antibacterial and antifungal activities of Ulopterol, a coumarin isolated as another major active antimicrobial principle.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The leaves were successively extracted with hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, methanol and water. The extracts were studied for their antimicrobial activity against selected bacteria and fungi by using disc-diffusion method. The ethyl acetate extract which was found to possess highest antimicrobial activity was subjected to activity guided fractionation by column chromatography over silica gel. This resulted in the isolation of the coumarin, Ulopetrol, an active principle besides Flindersine which was reported by us earlier. The structure of the compound was elucidated using physical and spectroscopic data. Flindersine and Ulopterol were quantified by HPLC.

RESULTS

Ulopterol showed activity against the bacteria viz. Staphylococcus epidermidis, Enterobacter aerogenes, Shigella flexneri, Klebsiella pneumoniae (ESBL-3967), Escherichia coli (ESBL-3984) and fungi viz. Aspergillus flavus, Candida krusei and Botrytis cinerea. Quantification by HPLC showed the content of Flindersine and Ulopterol to be 0.361% and 0.266% respectively on dry weight basis of the leaves.

CONCLUSIONS

Ethyl acetate extract (successive extraction) contained Ulopterol, a coumarin, besides Flindersine, a quinolone alkaloid, as a major active principle in the antimicrobial studies. This is the first report of the antimicrobial activity of Ulopterol and also its first report from the plant.

Genetic engineering of crop plants for fungal resistance: role of antifungal genes

Fungal diseases damage crop plants and affect agricultural production. Transgenic plants have been produced by inserting antifungal genes to confer resistance against fungal pathogens. Genes of fungal cell wall-degrading enzymes, such as chitinase and glucanase, are frequently used to produce fungal-resistant transgenic crop plants. In this review, we summarize the details of various transformation studies to develop fungal resistance in crop plants.

Antihyperlipidemic activity of Ichnocarpus frutescens in triton WR-1339-induced and high-fat diet animals

CONTEXT

Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae) is used to treat diabetes and hyperlipidemia in folk medicine.

OBJECTIVE

The crude methanol extract and fractions of I. frutescens were investigated for antihyperlipidemic effect.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fresh leaves of I. frutescens were extracted with methanol and fractionated with hexane, benzene, ethyl acetate, acetone, and methanol. The active acetone fraction was subfractionated, which resulted in active fraction 3. The antihyperlipidemic effects of the methanol extract and fractions of I. frutescens were studied in triton WR-1339-induced and high-fat diet (HFD) obese animals. Further, lipid absorption and excretion were studied.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The methanol extract significantly reduced total cholesterol (TC) by 29.63% and triglyceride (Tg) by 51.10% at 400 mg/kg in triton WR-1339-induced animals and significantly reduced TC (27.81%) and Tg (37.03%) at 400 mg/kg in HFD animals. Fraction 3 showed significant reduction in TC (25.03%) and Tg (58.05%) at 200 mg/kg. Feeding of HFD consisting 3% of fraction 3 increased feces weight and Tg level in mice. Fraction 3, showed significant decrease in plasma Tg level at the second hour, after oral administration of the lipid emulsion to rats.

CONCLUSION

The observed properties apparently validate the folk medicinal use of this plant in amelioration of hyperlipidemia.

Documentation and quantitative analysis of the local knowledge on medicinal plants among traditional Siddha healers in Virudhunagar district of Tamil Nadu, India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

India has a population with high degree of medical pluralism. Siddha system of Indian traditional medicine is practiced dominantly by the people in Tamil Nadu. The traditionally trained Siddha healers still play an important role in the rural health care. Their knowledge is comparatively more vulnerable than the documented traditional knowledge. Thus, the present study was aimed to document and quantitatively analyze the local knowledge of the traditional Siddha healers in Virudhunagar district of Tamil Nadu, India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The results presented in this paper are the outcome of series of interviews conducted between January and August, 2010 consisting of 196 field days. After getting prior informed consent, interviews were conducted and successive free-listing was used in the interviews in order to make informants cite the medicinal plants that they have used. By this way 96 healers were interviewed and their data were quantitatively analyzed using various indices such as Informant Consensus Factor (F(ic)), Fidelity Level (FL), Informant Agreement on Remedies (IAR) and Cultural Importance Index (CII).

RESULTS

This study recorded the ethno-medicinal usage of 227 species which were used to prepare 611 formulations for the treatment of 36 illness categories. The knowledge holders had the experience of minimum 20 years. There was unevenness in male-female ratio. Regarding the medicinal plants, easily available plants were holding significantly high number of citations, IAR and CII values. Nine illness categories had a high F(ic) value, compared to others. Species with high citations in these groups were Moringa oleifera (aphrodisiacs), Acalypha indica (dermatological ailments), Dodonaea viscosa (musculo-skeletal disorders), Solanum trilobatum (pulmonary ailments), Phyllanthus amarus (jaundice), Piper nigrum (adjuvant) Allium cepa (hemorrhoids), Azadirachta indica (antiseptic) and Tribulus terrestris (urinary ailments).

CONCLUSION

Quantitative analysis of the data had revealed that the easily available species hold a high consensus and cultural importance. Future biomedical studies using the medicinal plants enumerated in this study, particularly those with high number of citations and high F(ic) values might yield some novel prototypes. Such studies will also be useful to assess the efficacy and safety of these herbal treatments to take decisions on the health care of rural India.

Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.) using shoot apex explants

A new Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system was developed for finger millet using shoot apex explants. The Agrobacterium strain LBA4404 harboring binary vector pCAMBIA1301, which contained hygromycin phosphotransferase (hptII) as selectable marker gene and β-glucuronidase (GUS) as reporter gene, was used for optimization of transformation conditions. Two finger millet genotypes, GPU 45 and CO 14, were used in this study. The optimal conditions for the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of finger millet were found to be the co-cultivation of explants obtained on the 16th day after callus induction (DACI), exposure of explants for 30 min to agrobacterial inoculum and 3 days of co-cultivation on filter paper placed on medium supplemented with 100 μM acetosyringone (AS). Addition of 100 μM L: -cysteine in the selection medium enhanced the frequency of transformation and transgenic plant recovery. Both finger millet genotypes were transformed by Agrobacterium. A frequency of 19% transient expression with 3.8% stable transformation was achieved in genotype GPU 45 using optimal conditions. Five stably transformed plants were fully characterized by Southern blot analysis. A segregation analysis was also performed in four R(1) progenies, which showed normal Mendelian pattern of transgene segregation. The inheritance of transgenes in R(1) progenies was also confirmed by Southern blot analysis. This is the first report on Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of finger millet. This study underpins the introduction of numerous agronomically important genes into the genome of finger millet in the future.

Antimycobacterial activity of two natural alkaloids, vasicine acetate and 2-acetyl benzylamine, isolated from Indian shrub Adhatoda vasica Ness. leaves

In folk medicine, Adhatoda vasica Ness. (Acanthaceae) is used to treat asthma and cough. The leaves of A. vasica were powdered and extracted with hexane, ethyl acetate and methanol. The hexane extract showed 97 percent reduction in colony-forming units (CFU) at 100 microg/ml. The hexane extract was subjected to column chromatography. Two natural compounds, vasicine acetate and 2-acetyl benzylamine, were isolated from it. They were bioassayed against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The two compounds showed strong antimycobacterial activity. Vasicine acetate and 2-acetyl benzylamine isolated from hexane extract of A. vasica leaves, significantly inhibited M. tuberculosis and one multi-drug-resistant (MDR) strain and one sensitive strain at 200 and 50 microg/ml, respectively. Our study demonstrated that both the compounds, vasicine acetate and 2-acetyl benzylamine, could be evaluated further for developing a drug to control M. tuberculosis.

Lysosomal membrane stabilization and anti-inflammatory activity of Clerodendrum phlomidis L.f., a traditional medicinal plant

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Clerodendrum phlomidis L.f., is used to treat several inflammatory diseases and arthritis in Indian traditional system and folk medicine.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the scientific basis of antiinflammatory activity of different organic solvent extracts of Clerodendrum phlomidis and to evaluate the active crude extract for its antiarthritic activity in FCA induced animal model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The antiinflammatory activity of Clerodendrum phlomidis was studied using the carrageenan and cotton pellet induced inflammatory models. The crude ethanol extract was standardized with the known standard using HPLC. The antiarthritic activity was studied using Freund's complete adjuvant induced rat model. For antiarthritic activity, the active crude extract was administered at the concentrations of 100, 200 and 400mg/kg body weight. The effect of the ethanol extract on serum SGOT, SGPT, ALP, levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, plasma lysosomal enzymes and protein bound carbohydrates of FCA arthritic animals were studied.

RESULTS

The ethanol extract at 100, 200, and 400mg/kg, showed maximum inhibition of inflammation induced by carrageenan (100 mg/kg-47.73%; 200 mg/kg-54.00% and 400 mg/kg-65.15%). In cotton pellet induced granuloma, the ethanol extract at different concentrations showed significant reduction in granuloma weight. In FCA induced arthritis, the ethanol extract showed a significant reduction in paw thickness (100 mg/kg-51.71%; 200 mg/kg-57.58% and 400 mg/kg-62.48%). The levels of lysosomal enzymes and protein bound carbohydrates were significantly decreased in the ethanol extract treated groups compared with the arthritic control. The pro-inflammatory cytokine levels were significantly decreased in a dose dependent manner in all the Clerodendrum phlomidis treated groups.

CONCLUSION

Clerodendrum phlomidis displays considerable potency in antiinflammatory action and has prominent antiarthritic effect on adjuvant induced arthritis. Future studies will provide new insights into the antiinflammatory activity of Clerodendrum phlomidis and isolation of compound from it may eventually lead to development of a new class of antiinflammatory agent.

Antifeedant and larvicidal activities of Rhein isolated from the flowers of Cassia fistula L

Antifeedant and larvicidal activities of rhein (1,8-dihydroxyanthraquinone-3-carboxylic acid) isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of Cassia fistula flower were studied against lepidopteron pests Spodoptera litura and Helicoverpa armigera. Significant antifeedant activity was observed against H. armigera (76.13%) at 1000 ppm concentration. Rhein exhibited larvicidal activity against H. armigera (67.5), S. litura (36.25%) and the LC50 values was 606.50 ppm for H. armigera and 1192.55 ppm for S. litura. The survived larvae produced malformed adults.

Consensus of local knowledge on medicinal plants among traditional healers in Mayiladumparai block of Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India

AIM OF THE STUDY

The role of ethnobotany in drug discovery is huge but there are criticisms over such studies due to their qualitative nature. The present study is aimed at quantitatively abstracting the medicinal plant knowledge of the healers trained in traditional ways, in Mayiladumparai block of Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The interviews and field observations were carried out in all the 18 village panchayaths from January to June 2010, consisting of 148 field days. The interviews were conducted with 80 traditional healers, after obtaining prior informed consent. Successive free listing was used to interview the informants. The informant consensus factor (F(ic)) was calculated to estimate the use variability of medicinal plants. Fidelity index and Cultural importance index were also calculated to analyze the data.

RESULTS

This study recorded the ethno-medicinal usage of 142 ethno-species belonging to 62 families that were used to prepare 504 formulations. Jaundice had the highest F(ic) value than all the illness categories studied. Phyllanthus spp. was the highly cited medicinal plant to treat jaundice and had high fidelity index value. This was followed by Senna angustifolia and Terminalia chebula as laxatives. The highly cited medicinal plants in each group with high F(ic) value were Pongamia pinnata (antiseptic), Aerva lanata (antidote and snakebite), Blepharis maderaspatensis (cuts and wounds), Abutilon indicum (hemorrhoids), Ruta graveolens (spiritual medicine), Ocimum tenuiflorum (cough), and Solanum trilobatum (pulmonary ailments). Phyllanthus spp., was the most culturally significant species according to this index, followed by Borassus flebellifer.

CONCLUSION

The process of drug discovery has become highly expensive and post-approval and post-marketing withdrawal of drugs is continuing. In such scenario, reverse pharmacology is considered an attractive option. The medicinal plants enumerated in this study with high number of citations and high F(ic) values for illness categories might give some useful leads for further biomedical research.

3'-Benzoyl-1'-methyl-4'-phenyl-spiro[acenaphthyl-ene-1(2H),2'-pyrrolidin]-2-one

In the title compound, C₂₉H₂₃NO₂, the pyrrolidine ring adopts a twisted conformation about one of the C—N bonds. The acenaphthone ring (r.m.s. deviation = 0.025 Å) lies almost perpendicular to the pyrrolidine ring [dihedral angle = 88.08 (8)°]. The dihedral angle between the phenyl rings is 88.12 (11)°. In the crystal structure, weak C—H⋯π inter­actions connect the mol­ecules.

Bioefficacy of Aristolochia tagala Cham. against Spodoptera litura Fab. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Bioefficacy of leaf and root extracts of Aristolochia tagala Cham. at different concentrations was evaluated at room temperature against Spodoptera litura Fab. Effects on feeding, larvicidal and pupicidal activities and larval-pupal duration were studied. Higher antifeedant activity (56.06%), lethal concentration for feeding inhibition (3.69%), larvicidal (40.66%), pupicidal (28%), total mortality (68.66%) and prolonged larval-pupal duration (12.04-13.08 days) were observed in ethyl acetate leaf extract at 5.0% concentration. Dose dependant effect of test extracts was observed. This plant could be used to isolate active principles and to develop a new botanical formulation in pest management programmes.

Activity of Eugenia jambolana, an ethnomedical plant, against drug-resistant bacteria

Seeds of Eugenia jambolana Lam. (Myrtaceae) are used by many tribes in India to treat diarrhea and dysentery. The crude extracts of seeds of this plant demonstrated zones of inhibition in the range of 14- 21 mm against the isolated beta-lactamase-producing drug-resistant bacteria. The methanol extract showed promising antibacterial activity which was subjected to fractionation. The effective fraction (F2) showed a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranging from 31.75 to 62.5 microg/mL. Phytochemical analysis and thin layer chromatography of the most promising fraction showed the presence of saponin as the active phytoconstituent. The active fraction was further tested for its in vitro hemolytic activity in sheep and human erythrocytes and no hemolysis was seen. Thus, the use of this plant by tribals to treat bacterial infections has some scientific basis.

Immunomodulatory, analgesic and antipyretic effects of violacein isolated from Chromobacterium violaceum

Violacein was isolated from Chromobacterium violaceum, a soil Gram negative bacterium collected from the forest water body soil sample of Kolli Hills; Tamil Nadu, India. In the present study the immunomodulatory, analgesic and antipyretic activities of violacein were investigated in wistar rats and mice. Analgesic effect was evaluated by acetic acid- induced writhing, formalin induced paw licking and hotplate tests. Immunomodulatory effect was investigated by using ovalbumin- induced active paw anaphylaxis and sheep red blood cells (SRBC)-induced DTH tests. Antipyretic activity was evaluated by yeast- induced hyperpyrexia in rats. The anti- oedema effect was compared with indomethacin. Violacein inhibited 42.9% of ovalbumin- induced edema. Further we found that violacein (40mg/kg b.w.) reduced the edema induced by sheep red blood cells. Violacein also produced significant (p<0.05) analgesic activity in acetic acid induced writhing response, formalin induced paw licking response and hot plate analysis. Treatment with violacein showed a significant (p<0.05) dose-dependent reduction in pyrexia in rats. The results suggest that violacein possesses potent immunomodulatory, analgesic and antipyretic activities.

Anti-inflammatory activity of Albizia lebbeck Benth., an ethnomedicinal plant, in acute and chronic animal models of inflammation

AIM OF THE STUDY

Albizia lebbeck Benth. is used both in Indian traditional system and folk medicine to treat several inflammatory pathologies such as asthma, arthritis and burns. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the scientific basis of anti-inflammatory activity of different organic solvent extracts of Albizia lebbeck.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The anti-inflammatory activity of Albizia lebbeck was studied using the carrageenan, dextran, cotton pellet and Freund's complete adjuvant induced rat models. The extracts obtained using petroleum ether, chloroform and ethanol were administered at the concentrations of 100, 200 and 400mg/kg body weight.

RESULTS

The petroleum ether and ethanol extracts at 400mg/kg, showed maximum inhibition of inflammation induced by carrageenan (petroleum ether-48.6%; ethanol-59.57%), dextran (petroleum ether-45.99%; ethanol-52.93%), cotton pellet (petroleum ether-34.46%; ethanol-53.57%) and Freund's adjuvant (petroleum ether-64.97%; ethanol-68.57%).

CONCLUSION

The marked inhibitory effect on paw edema shows that Albizia lebbeck possesses remarkable anti-inflammatory activity, supporting the folkloric usage of the plant to treat various inflammatory diseases.

Antidiabetic and antilipidemic effect of eremanthin from Costus speciosus (Koen.)Sm., in STZ-induced diabetic rats

The increasing prevalence of diabetes mellitus worldwide is an issue of major socio-economic concern. Diabetes mellitus is a complex and a multifarious group of disorders that disturbs the metabolism of carbohydrates, fat and protein. Medicinal plants play an important role in the management of diabetes mellitus especially in developing countries. Costus speciosus is widely used in Indian medicine to treat various diseases. Eremanthin was isolated from C. speciosus. The structure was identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. Eremanthin was administered to streptozotocin (STZ) (50mg/kg bw) induced diabetic male Wistar rats at different doses (5, 10, 20mg/kg bw) for 60 days. Plasma glucose level was significantly (p<0.05) reduced in a dose dependent manner when compared to the control. In addition, oral administration of eremanthin (20mg/kg bw) significantly decreased glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA(1c)), serum total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL-cholesterol and at the same time markedly increased plasma insulin, tissue glycogen, HDL-cholesterol and serum protein. Eremanthin also restored the altered plasma enzyme (aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and acid phosphatase) levels to near normal. Results of this experimental study indicated that eremanthin possessed hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activities and hence it could be used as a drug for treating diabetes.

Hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic effect of Begonia malabarica Lam. in normal and streptozotocin induced diabetic rats

AIM OF THE STUDY

The stem of Begonia malabarica was used traditionally by the Malasar tribe to treat diabetes. To validate the hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic effects of the hexane, ethylacetate and methanol extracts obtained from an ethnomedicinal plant, Begonia malabarica.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The doses for the study were fixed based on Irwin test. The hypoglycemic effect of hexane, ethylacetate and methanol extracts of Begonia malabarica stems were studied in normal animals. The antihyperglycemic effect of the methanol extract was studied in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats.

RESULTS

In normal rats the treatment with the methanol extract of Begonia malabarica had shown a highly significant reduction (16.54 and 34.47%) in plasma glucose levels from the 0 h values at the dose of 100 and 200 mg/kg respectively. In streptozotocin induced diabetic rats the body weight of the Begonia malabarica methanol extract treated animals had shown a significant increase (13.38% at 200 mg/kg) after 4 weeks treatment. The plasma glucose levels were reduced significantly by 46.57 and 50.20% after 4 weeks treatment at 100 and 200mg/kg respectively. Likewise the absolute kidney weight was also reduced in a significant manner. After 25 days treatment the Begonia malabarica methanol extract treated animals had shown low fasting plasma glucose levels (54.29, 61.34% in 100 and 200 mg/kg) and reduced postprandial plasma glucose levels (54.23, 65.96% in 100 and 200 mg/kg) when compared with diabetic control values. Serum insulin levels and liver glycogen levels were increased to 40.04 and 42.18% in 200 mg/kg Begonia malabarica methanol extract treated animals respectively. The treatment with Begonia malabarica methanol extract did not change the triglycerides and total cholesterol levels. The urea and creatinine levels were also reduced significantly by this treatment. The reduction in SGPT levels indicated the absence of toxicity of Begonia malabarica extract at this dose level.

CONCLUSION

This study supports the use of Begonia malabarica by the Malasar tribe for the treatment of diabetes. Fractionation of this extract may yield novel prototypes to manage diabetes mellitus.

Antibacterial and antifungal activity of Flindersine isolated from the traditional medicinal plant, Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam

AIM OF THE STUDY

The leaves and root of Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. (Rutaceae) are widely used as a folk medicine in India. Hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, methanol and water extracts of Toddalia asiatica leaves and isolated compound Flindersine were tested against bacteria and fungi.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Antibacterial and antifungal activities were tested against bacteria and fungi using disc-diffusion method and minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs). The compound was confirmed using X-ray crystallography technique.

RESULTS

Antibacterial and antifungal activities were observed in ethyl acetate extract. One active principle Flindersine (2,6-dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-5H-pyrano [3,2-c] quinoline-5-one-9cl) was isolated from the ethyl acetate extract. The MIC values of the compound against bacteria Bacillus subtilis (31.25 microg/ml), Staphylococcus aureus (62.5 microg/ml), Staphylococcus epidermidis (62.5 microg/ml), Enterococcus faecalis (31.25 microg/ml), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (250 microg/ml), Acinetobacter baumannii (125 microg/ml) and fungi Trichophyton rubrum 57 (62.5 microg/ml), Trichophyton mentagrophytes (62.5 microg/ml), Trichophyton simii (62.5 microg/ml), Epidermophyton floccosum (62.5 microg/ml), Magnaporthe grisea (250 microg/ml) and Candida albicans (250 microg/ml) were determined.

CONCLUSIONS

Ethyl acetate extract showed promising antibacterial and antifungal activity and isolated compound Flindersine showed moderate activity against bacteria and fungi.

A novel steroid from Elephantopus scaber L. an ethnomedicinal plant with antidiabetic activity

Acetone extract of Elephantopus scaber, an ethnomedicnal plant, reduced the blood glucose levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats significantly. Acute toxicity studies revealed the non-toxic nature of the crude extract. Fractionation of the acetone extract yielded a new steroid, 28Nor-22(R)Witha 2,6,23-trienolide. Biological testing of the compound demonstrated a significant antidiabetic activity by reducing the elevated blood glucose levels and restoring the insulin levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. This compound can be a useful candidate to treat diabetes.

Partial regeneration of beta-cells in the islets of Langerhans by Nymphayol a sterol isolated from Nymphaea stellata (Willd.) flowers

Reduction of the beta-cell mass is critical in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus. The discovery of agents which induce regeneration of pancreatic beta-cells would be useful to develop new therapeutic approaches to treat diabetes. The present study was aimed at identifying a new agent for the control of diabetes through regeneration of pancreatic beta cells and insulin secretory potential. Nymphaea stellata flower chloroform extract (NSFCExt) showed significant plasma glucose lowering effect. Further NSFCExt was utilized to isolate and identify the lead compound based on bioassay guided fractionation; we found Nymphayol (25,26-dinorcholest-5-en-3beta-ol) a new crystal [space group P2(1) (No. 4), a=9.618(5), b=7.518(5), c=37.491(5)]. It was purified by repeat column. The structure was determined on the basis of X-ray crystallography and spectral data. Oral administration of Nymphayol for 45 days significantly (p<0.05) lowered the blood glucose level and more importantly it effectively increased the insulin content in diabetic rats. In addition, Nymphayol increased the number of beta cell mass enormously. Islet-like cell clusters in the islets of Langerhans were clearly observed based on histochemical and immunohistochemical study.