Design and Demonstration of a Configurable Imaging Platform for Combined Laser, Ultrasound, and Elasticity Imaging

This paper introduces a configurable combined laser, ultrasound, and elasticity (CLUE) imaging platform. The CLUE platform enables imaging sequences capable of simultaneously providing quantitative acoustic, optical, and mechanical contrast for comprehensive diagnosis and monitoring of complex diseases, such as cancer. The CLUE imaging platform was developed on a Verasonics ultrasound scanner integrated with a pulsed laser, and it was designed to be modular and scalable to allow researchers to create their own specific imaging sequences efficiently. The CLUE imaging platform and sequence were demonstrated in a tissue-mimicking phantom containing a stiff inclusion labeled with optically-activated nanodroplets and in an ex vivo mouse spleen. We have shown that CLUE imaging can simultaneously capture multi-functional imaging signals providing quantitative information on tissue.

Ultrasound-guided immunofunctional photoacoustic imaging for diagnosis of lymph node metastases

Metastases, rather than primary tumors, determine mortality in the majority of cancer patients. A non-invasive immunofunctional imaging method was developed to detect sentinel lymph node (SLN) metastases using ultrasound-guided photoacoustic (USPA) imaging combined with glycol-chitosan-coated gold nanoparticles (GC-AuNPs) as an imaging contrast agent. GC-AuNPs, injected peritumorally into breast tumor-bearing mice, were taken up by immune cells, and subsequently transported to the SLN. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional USPA imaging was used to isolate the signal from GC-AuNP-tagged cells. Volumetric analysis was used to quantify GC-AuNP accumulation in the SLN after cellular uptake and transport by immune cells. The results show that the spatio-temporal distribution of GC-AuNPs in the SLN was affected by the presence of metastases. The parameter describing the spatial distribution of GC-AuNP-tagged cells within the SLN was more than 2-fold lower in metastatic lymph nodes compared with non-metastatic controls. Histological analysis confirmed that the distribution of GC-AuNP-tagged immune cells is changed by the presence of metastatic cells. The USPA immunofunctional imaging successfully distinguished metastatic from non-metastatic lymph nodes using biocompatible nanoparticles. This method could aid physicians in the detection of micrometastases, thus guiding SLN biopsy and avoiding unnecessary biopsy procedures.

Lipid Shell Composition Plays a Critical Role in the Stable Size Reduction of Perfluorocarbon Nanodroplets

Perfluorocarbon nanodroplets (PFCnDs) are phase-change contrast agents that have the potential to enable extravascular contrast-enhanced ultrasound and photoacoustic (US/PA) imaging. Producing consistently small, monodisperse PFCnDs remains a challenge without resorting to technically challenging methods. We investigated the impact of variable shell composition on PFCnD size and US/PA image properties. Our results suggest that increasing the molar percentage of PEGylated lipid reduces the size and size variance of PFCnDs. Furthermore, our imaging studies revealed that nanodroplets with more PEGylated lipids produce increased US/PA signal compared with those with the standard formulation. Finally, we highlight the ability of this approach to facilitate US/PA imaging in a murine model of breast cancer. These data indicate that, through a facile synthesis process, it is possible to produce monodisperse, small-sized PFCnDs. Novel in their simplicity, these methods may promote the use of PFCnDs among a broader user base to study a variety of extravascular phenomena.

Color-coded perfluorocarbon nanodroplets for multiplexed ultrasound and Photoacoustic imaging

Laser-activated perfluorocarbon nanodroplets are an emerging class of phase change, dual-contrast agents that can be utilized in ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging. Through the ability to differentiate subpopulations of nanodroplets via laser activation at different wavelengths of near-infrared light, optically-triggered color-coded perfluorocarbon nanodroplets present themselves as an attractive tool for multiplexed ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging. In particular, laser-activated droplets can be used to provide quantitative spatiotemporal information regarding distinct biological targets, allowing for their potential use in a wide range of diagnos tic and therapeutic applications. In the work presented, laser-activated color-coded perfluorocarbon nanodroplets are synthesized to selectively respond to laser irradiation at corresponding wavelengths. The dynamic ultrasound and photoacoustic signals produced by laser-activated perfluorocarbon nanodroplets are evaluated in situ prior to implementation in a murine model. In vivo, these particles are used to distinguish unique particle trafficking mechanisms and are shown to provide ultrasound and photoacoustic contrast for up to 72 hours within lymphatics. Overall, the conducted studies show that laser-activated color-coded perfluorocarbon nanodroplets are a promising agent for multiplexed ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging.

Leveraging the Imaging Transmit Pulse to Manipulate Phase-Change Nanodroplets for Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound

Phase-change perfluorohexane nanodroplets (PFHnDs) are a new class of recondensable submicrometer-sized contrast agents that have potential for contrast-enhanced and super-resolution ultrasound imaging with an ability to reach extravascular targets. The PFHnDs can be optically triggered to undergo vaporization, resulting in spatially stationary, temporally transient microbubbles. The vaporized PFHnDs are hyperechoic in ultrasound imaging for several to hundreds of milliseconds before recondensing to their native, hypoechoic, liquid nanodroplet state. The decay of echogenicity, i.e., the dynamic behavior of the ultrasound signal from optically triggered PFHnDs in ultrasound imaging, can be captured using high-frame-rate ultrasound imaging. We explore the possibility to manipulate the echogenicity dynamics of optically triggered PFHnDs in ultrasound imaging by changing the phase of the ultrasound imaging pulse. Specifically, the ultrasound imaging system was programmed to transmit two imaging pulses with inverse polarities. We show that the imaging pulse phase can affect the amplitude and the temporal behavior of PFHnD echogenicity in ultrasound imaging. The results of this study demonstrate that the ultrasound echogenicity is significantly increased (about 78% improvement) and the hyperechoic timespan of optically triggered PFHnDs is significantly longer (about four times) if the nanodroplets are imaged by an ultrasound pulse starting with rarefactional pressure versus a pulse starting with compressional pressure. Our finding has direct and significant implications for contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging of droplets in applications such as super-resolution imaging and molecular imaging where detection of individual or low-concentration PFHnDs is required.

Photothermal transformation of Au-Ag nanocages under pulsed laser irradiation

Pulsed laser irradiation has emerged as an effective means to photothermally transform plasmonic nanostructures after their use in different biomedical applications. However, the ability to predict the products after photothermal transformation requires extensive ex situ studies. Here, we report a systematic study of the photothermal transformation of Au-Ag nanocages with a localized surface plasmon resonance at ca. 750 nm under pulsed laser irradiation at different fluences and a pulse duration of 5 ns. At biologically relevant laser energies, the pulsed laser transforms Au-Ag nanocages into pseudo-spherical, solid nanoparticles. The solid nanoparticles contained similar numbers of Au and Ag atoms to the parent Au-Ag nanocages. At increased laser fluences (>16 mJ cm-2) and number of pulses (>150), the average diameter of the resulting pseudo-spherical particles increased due to the involvement of Ostwald ripening and/or attachment-based growth. The changes in optical properties as a result of the transformation were validated using simulations based on the discrete dipole approximation method, where the spectral profiles and peak positions of the initial and final states matched well with the experimentally derived data. The results may have implications for the future use of Au-Ag nanocages in biomedicine, catalysis, and sensing.

Photoacoustic imaging of gold nanorods in the brain delivered via microbubble-assisted focused ultrasound: a tool for in vivo molecular neuroimaging

The protective barriers of the CNS present challenges during the treatment and monitoring of diseases. In particular, the blood brain barrier is a major hindrance to the delivery of imaging contrast agents and therapeutics to the brain. In this work, we use gas microbubble-assisted focused ultrasound to transiently open the blood brain barrier and locally deliver silica coated gold nanorods across the barrier. This particular nanoagent possesses a strong optical absorption which enables in vivo and ex vivo visualization of the delivered particles using ultrasound-guided photoacoustic imaging. The results of these studies demonstrate the potential of ultrasound-guided photoacoustics to image contrast agents delivered via microbubble-assisted focused ultrasound for longitudinal diagnostic imaging and for therapeutic monitoring of neurological diseases.

Impact of depth-dependent optical attenuation on wavelength selection for spectroscopic photoacoustic imaging

An optical wavelength selection method based on the stability of the absorption cross-section matrix to improve spectroscopic photoacoustic (sPA) imaging was recently introduced. However, spatially-varying chromophore concentrations cause the wavelength- and depth-dependent variations of the optical fluence, which degrades the accuracy of quantitative sPA imaging. This study introduces a depth-optimized method that determines an optimal wavelength set minimizing an inverse of the multiplication of absorption cross-section matrix and fluence matrix to minimize the errors in concentration estimation. This method assumes that the optical fluence distribution is known or can be attained otherwise. We used a Monte Carlo simulation of light propagation in tissue with various depths and concentrations of deoxy-/oxy-hemoglobin. We quantitatively compared the developed and current approaches, indicating that the choice of wavelength is critical and our approach is effective especially when quantifying deeper imaging targets.

Super-Resolution Imaging With Ultrafast Ultrasound Imaging of Optically Triggered Perfluorohexane Nanodroplets

Super-resolution imaging with moving microbubbles has shown potential in identifying fine details of deep-lying vascular compartments. To image the extravascular targets, this paper has employed nanometer-sized, optically triggered perfluorohexane nanodroplets (PFHnDs). In response to pulsed laser irradiation, the PFHnDs repeatedly vaporize and stochastically recondense, resulting in random changes of ultrasound signals. Our previous study has shown that the stochastic recondensation of the PFHnDs can be used to isolate individual PFHnDs for super-resolution imaging. This paper introduces an improved method for super-resolution imaging with ultrafast ultrasound imaging of PFHnDs. The previous method was based on subtraction of two consecutive ultrasound images to detect signals from recondensed, isolated droplets, whereas our current method compounds respective multiple pre- and post-recondensation ultrafast ultrasound images prior to subtraction to improve the spatial resolution further. To evaluate the axial and lateral resolutions of our method, we repeatedly imaged a phantom containing PFHnDs using a programmable ultrasound system synchronized with a pulsed laser system. As a result, our method improved the lateral and axial resolutions by 54% and 68%, respectively, over the previous super-resolution imaging approach, indicating that it can be used for localizing extravascular molecular targets with superior accuracy.

Photoacoustic Image-Guided Delivery of Plasmonic-Nanoparticle-Labeled Mesenchymal Stem Cells to the Spinal Cord

Regenerative therapies using stem cells have great potential for treating neurodegenerative diseases and traumatic injuries in the spinal cord. In spite of significant research efforts, many therapies fail at the clinical phase. As stem cell technologies advance toward clinical use, there is a need for a minimally invasive, safe, affordable, and real-time imaging technique that allows for the accurate and safe monitoring of stem cell delivery in the operating room. In this work, we present a combined ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging tool to provide image-guided needle placement and monitoring of nanoparticle-labeled stem cell delivery into the spinal cord. We successfully tagged stem cells using gold nanospheres and provided image-guided delivery of stem cells into the spinal cord in real-time, detecting as few as 1000 cells. Ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging was used to guide needle placement for direct stem cell injection to minimize the risk of needle shear and accidental injury and to improve therapeutic outcomes with accurate, localized stem cell delivery. Following injections of various volumes of cells, three-dimensional ultrasound and photoacoustic images allowed the visualization of stem cell distribution along the spinal cord, showing the potential to monitor the migration of the cells in the future. The feasibility of quantitative imaging was also shown by correlating the total photoacoustic signal over the imaging volume to the volume of cells injected. Overall, the presented method may allow clinicians to utilize imaged-guided delivery for more accurate and safer stem cell delivery to the spinal cord.

Integrated optical coherence tomography and multielement ultrasound transducer probe for shear wave elasticity imaging of moving tissues

Accurate measurements of microelastic properties of soft tissues in-vivo using optical coherence elastography can be affected by motion artifacts caused by cardiac and respiratory cycles. This problem can be overcome using a multielement ultrasound transducer probe where each ultrasound transducer is capable of generating acoustic radiation force (ARF) and, therefore, creating shear waves in tissue. These shear waves, produced during the phase of cardiac and respiratory cycles when tissues are effectively stationary, are detected at the same observation point using phase-sensitive optical coherence tomography (psOCT). Given the known distance between the ultrasound transducers, the speed of shear wave propagation can be calculated by measuring the difference between arrival times of shear waves. The combined multitransducer ARF/psOCT probe has been designed and tested in phantoms and ex-vivo studies using fresh rabbit heart. The measured values of shear moduli are in good agreement with those reported in literature. Our results suggest that the developed multitransducer ARF/psOCT probe can be useful for many in-vivo applications, including quantifying the microelasticity of cardiac muscle.

Laser-activated perfluorocarbon nanodroplets: a new tool for blood brain barrier opening

A major obstacle in the monitoring and treatment of neurological diseases is the blood brain barrier (BBB), a semipermeable barrier that prevents the delivery of many therapeutics and imaging contrast agents to the brain. In this work, we explored the possibility of laser-activated perfluorocarbon nanodroplets (PFCnDs) to open the BBB and deliver agents to the brain tissue. Specifically, near infrared (NIR) dye-loaded PFCnDs comprised of a perfluorocarbon (PFC) core with a boiling point above physiological temperature were repeatedly vaporized and recondensed from liquid droplet to gas bubble under pulsed laser excitation. As a result, this pulse-to-pulse repeated behavior enabled the recurring interaction of PFCnDs with the endothelial lining of the BBB, allowing for a BBB opening and extravasation of dye into the brain tissue. The blood brain barrier opening and delivery of agents to tissue was confirmed on the macro and the molecular level by evaluating Evans Blue staining, ultrasound-guided photoacoustic (USPA) imaging, and histological tissue analysis. The demonstrated PFCnD-assisted pulsed laser method for BBB opening, therefore, represents a tool that has the potential to enable non-invasive, cost-effective, and efficient image-guided delivery of contrast and therapeutic agents to the brain.

Combined Multiwavelength Photoacoustic and Plane-Wave Ultrasound Imaging for Probing Dynamic Phase-Change Contrast Agents

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to introduce combined multiwavelength photoacoustic (PA) and plane-wave ultrasound (US) imaging referred to as mwPA/pwUS imaging capable of probing the rapid dynamic behavior of optically activated phase-change contrast agents.

METHODS

A dedicated mwPA/pwUS imaging sequence was developed based on a programmable US system synchronized with a tunable laser to irradiate tissue with laser pulses at desired optical wavelengths and to acquire post laser pulse PA images followed by ultrafast plane-wave US images. To evaluate the mwPA/pwUS imaging, a capillary filled with optically responsive perfluorohexane nanodroplets (PFHnDs) containing a dye with the peak absorption at 760 nm was imaged with optical wavelengths ranging from 700 to 940 nm. The differences between post-laser ultrafast US images [i.e., differential US (ΔUS)] were taken to visualize the recondensation dynamics of PFHnDs at each wavelength.

RESULTS

The PA images of PFHnDs showed higher contrast near 760 nm wavelength, corresponding to the peak absorption of the dye encapsulated in the PFHnDs. Moreover, the ΔUS signals immediately after 760-nm pulsed laser irradiation were also high due to the increased US contrast associated with vaporized PFHnDs.

CONCLUSION

The mwPA/pwUS imaging allowed for the US-based optical spectroscopic characterization of PFHnDs and their dynamics.

SIGNIFICANCE

The introduced mwPA/pwUS imaging sequence can be used in various clinical applications where both spectroscopic PA imaging of endogenous and/or exogenous chromophores and ultrafast US imaging of phase-change nanodroplets are desired.

Copper Sulfide Perfluorocarbon Nanodroplets as Clinically Relevant Photoacoustic/Ultrasound Imaging Agents

We have developed laser-activated perfluorocarbon nanodroplets containing copper sulfide nanoparticles (CuS NPs) for contrast-enhanced ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging. As potential clinical contrast agents, CuS NPs have favorable properties including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and enhance contrast in photoacoustic images at clinically relevant depths. However, CuS NPs are not efficient optical absorbers when compared to plasmonic nanoparticles and therefore, contrast enhancement with CuS NPs is limited, requiring high concentrations to generate images with sufficient signal-to-noise ratio. We have combined CuS NPs with laser-activated perfluorocarbon nanodroplets (PFCnDs) to achieve enhanced photoacoustic contrast and, more importantly, ultrasound contrast while retaining the favorable clinical characteristics of CuS NPs. The imaging characteristics of synthesized CuS-PFCnD constructs were first tested in tissue-mimicking phantoms and then in in vivo murine models. The results demonstrate that CuS-PFCnDs enhance contrast in photoacoustic (PA) and ultrasound (US) imaging. Upon systemic administration in vivo, CuS-PFCnDs remain stable and their unique vaporization provides sufficient PA/US contrast that can be further exploited for contrast-enhanced background-free imaging. The conducted studies provide a solid foundation for further development of CuS-PFCnDs as PA/US diagnostic and eventually therapeutic agents for clinical applications.

Dual-Phase Transmit Focusing for Multiangle Compound Shear-Wave Elasticity Imaging

Shear-wave elasticity imaging (SWEI) enables the quantitative assessment of the mechanical properties of tissue. In SWEI, the effective generation of acoustic radiation force is of paramount importance. Consequently, several research groups have investigated various transmit beamforming and pulse-sequencing methods. To further improve the efficiency of the shear-wave generation, and therefore, to increase the quality of SWEI, we introduce a technique referred to as "multiangle compound SWEI" (MAC-SWEI), which uses simultaneous multiangular push beams created by dual-phase transmit focusing. By applying a constant phase offset on every other element of an array transducer, dual-phase transmit focusing creates both main and grating lobes (i.e., multiangular push beams for pushing) to simultaneously generate shear waves with several wavefront angles. The shear waves propagating at different angles are separated by multidirectional filtering in the frequency domain, leading to the reconstruction of multiple spatially co-registered shear-wave velocity maps. To form a single-elasticity image, these maps are combined, while regions associated with known artifacts created by the push beams are omitted. Overall, we developed and tested the MAC-SWEI method using Field II quantitative simulations and the experiments performed using a programmable ultrasound imaging system. Our results suggest that MAC-SWEI with dual-phase transmit focusing may improve the quality of elasticity maps.

Contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging in vivo with laser-activated nanodroplets

PURPOSE

This study introduces a real-time contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging method with recently developed laser-activated nanodroplets (LANDs), a new class of phase-change nanometer-scale contrast agents that provides perceptible, sustained high-contrast with ultrasound.

METHODS

In response to pulsed laser irradiation, the LANDs-, which contain liquid perfluorohexane and optical fuses-blink (vaporize and recondense). That is, they change their state from liquid nanodroplets to gas microbubbles, and then back to liquid nanodroplets. In their gaseous microbubble state, the LANDs provide high-contrast ultrasound, but the microbubbles formed in situ typically recondense in tens of milliseconds. As a result, LAND visualization by standard, real-time ultrasound is limited. However, the periodic optical triggering of LANDs allows us to observe corresponding transient, periodic changes in ultrasound contrast. This study formulates a probability function that measures how ultrasound temporal signals vary in periodicity. Then, the estimated probability is mapped onto a B-scan image to construct a LAND-localized, contrast-enhanced image. We verified our method through phantom and in vivo experiments using an ultrasound system (Vevo 2100, FUJIFILM VisualSonics, Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada) operating with a 40-MHz linear array and interfaced with a 10 Hz Nd:YAG laser (Phocus, Opotek Inc., Carlsbad, CA, USA) operating at the fundamental 1064 nm wavelength.

RESULTS

From the phantom study, the results showed improvements in the contrast-to-noise ratio of our approach over conventional ultrasound ranging from 129% to 267%, with corresponding execution times of 0.10 to 0.29 s, meaning that the developed method is computationally efficient while yielding high-contrast ultrasound. Furthermore, in vivo sentinel lymph node (SLN) imaging results demonstrated that our technique could accurately identify the SLN.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that our approach enables efficient and robust LAND localization in real time with substantially improved contrast, which is essential for the successful translation of this contrast agent platform to clinical settings.

Ultrasound-guided spectral photoacoustic imaging of hemoglobin oxygenation during development

Few technologies are capable of imaging in vivo function during development. In this study, we have implemented spectral photoacoustic imaging to estimate tissue oxygenation longitudinally in pregnant mice. We used the spectral photoacoustic signal to estimate hemoglobin oxygen saturation within intact, in vivo mouse concepti from developmental day (E) 8.5 to E16.5-a first step towards functional imaging of the maternal-fetal environment. Future work will apply these methods to compare longitudinal functional changes during normal vs abnormal development of embryos, fetuses, and placentas.

The impact of intraocular pressure on elastic wave velocity estimates in the crystalline lens

Intraocular pressure (IOP) is believed to influence the mechanical properties of ocular tissues including cornea and sclera. The elastic properties of the crystalline lens have been mainly investigated with regard to presbyopia, the age-related loss of accommodation power of the eye. However, the relationship between the elastic properties of the lens and IOP remains to be established. The objective of this study is to measure the elastic wave velocity, which represents the mechanical properties of tissue, in the crystalline lens ex vivo in response to changes in IOP. The elastic wave velocities in the cornea and lens from seven enucleated bovine globe samples were estimated using ultrasound shear wave elasticity imaging. To generate and then image the elastic wave propagation, an ultrasound imaging system was used to transmit a 600 µs pushing pulse at 4.5 MHz center frequency and to acquire ultrasound tracking frames at 6 kHz frame rate. The pushing beams were separately applied to the cornea and lens. IOP in the eyeballs was varied from 5 to 50 mmHg. The results indicate that while the elastic wave velocity in the cornea increased from 0.96  ±  0.30 m s^-1 to 6.27  ±  0.75 m s^-1 as IOP was elevated from 5 to 50 mmHg, there were insignificant changes in the elastic wave velocity in the crystalline lens with the minimum and the maximum speeds of 1.44  ±  0.27 m s^-1 and 2.03  ±  0.46 m s^-1, respectively. This study shows that ultrasound shear wave elasticity imaging can be used to assess the biomechanical properties of the crystalline lens noninvasively. Also, it was observed that the dependency of the crystalline lens stiffness on the IOP was significantly lower in comparison with that of cornea.

Abstract 131: Quantification of in vivo Placental Oxygenation Using Ultrasound-guided Spectral Photoacoustic Imaging

Preeclampsia, linked to abnormal placental development and ischemia, is a major cause of fetal and maternal death. Currently, the only cure is high-risk preterm delivery. Although clinical therapies to regulate the symptoms of preeclampsia—mean arterial pressure and proteinuria—it is unknown whether these therapeutics restore placental blood flow and reduce ischemia. We are developing ultrasound-guided spectral photoacoustic imaging to quantify placental ischemia and characterize therapeutic response. Ultrasound imaging is the preferred imaging modality to monitor pregnancy due to its safety, low cost, and mobility. Similar to ultrasound, photoacoustic imaging can provide co-registered images of tissue function. In these studies, pregnant SWV mice were imaged longitudinally from E12.5 to 18.5 using a Vevo LAZR small animal imaging system. Algorithms were developed to correlate the spectral photoacoustic data to a hemoglobin oxygenation (%sO 2 ) calibration standard—a phantom containing blood at varying partial pressures of oxygen. The phantom calibration standard deviation was 7.9% (n=3). The resulting ultrasound images were used to segment the placenta (Figure 1). An overlay of the %sO 2 on the ultrasound image maps placental variation in %sO 2 during longitudinal development. We demonstrate that our imaging method is capable of quantifying %sO2 and monitoring placental function in vivo . Future work will use our preclinical %sO2 quantification methods to characterize placental function during treatment for preeclampsia.

Blinking Phase-Change Nanocapsules Enable Background-Free Ultrasound Imaging

Microbubbles are widely used as contrast agents to improve the diagnostic capability of conventional, highly speckled, low-contrast ultrasound imaging. However, while microbubbles can be used for molecular imaging, these agents are limited to the vascular space due to their large size (> 1 μm). Smaller microbubbles are desired but their ultrasound visualization is limited due to lower echogenicity or higher resonant frequencies. Here we present nanometer scale, phase changing, blinking nanocapsules (BLInCs), which can be repeatedly optically triggered to provide transient contrast and enable background-free ultrasound imaging. In response to irradiation by near-infrared laser pulses, the BLInCs undergo cycles of rapid vaporization followed by recondensation into their native liquid state at body temperature. High frame rate ultrasound imaging measures the dynamic echogenicity changes associated with these controllable, periodic phase transitions. Using a newly developed image processing algorithm, the blinking particles are distinguished from tissue, providing a background-free image of the BLInCs while the underlying B-mode ultrasound image is used as an anatomical reference of the tissue. We demonstrate the function of BLInCs and the associated imaging technique in a tissue-mimicking phantom and in vivo for the identification of the sentinel lymph node. Our studies indicate that BLInCs may become a powerful tool to identify biological targets using a conventional ultrasound imaging system.

Super-Resolution Ultrasound Imaging in Vivo with Transient Laser-Activated Nanodroplets

We have developed a method for super-resolution ultrasound imaging, which relies on a new class of blinking nanometer-size contrast agents: laser-activated nanodroplets (LANDs). The LANDs can be repeatedly optically triggered to undergo vaporization; the resulting spatially stationary, temporally transient microbubbles provide high ultrasound contrast for several to hundreds of milliseconds before recondensing to their native liquid nanodroplet state. By capturing high frame rate ultrasound images of blinking LANDs, we demonstrate the ability to detect individual recondensation events. Then we apply a newly developed super-resolution image processing algorithm to localize the LAND positions in vivo almost an order of magnitude better than conventional ultrasound imaging. These results pave the way for high resolution molecular imaging deep in tissue.

Ultrasound-guided photoacoustic imaging-directed re-endothelialization of acellular vasculature leads to improved vascular performance

As increasing effort is dedicated to investigating the regenerative capacity of decellularized tissues, research has progressed to recellularizing these tissues prior to implantation. The delivery and support of cells seeded throughout acellular scaffolds are typically conducted through the vascular axis of the tissues. However, it is unclear how cell concentration and injection frequency can affect the distribution of cells throughout the scaffold. Furthermore, what effects re-endothelialization have on vascular patency and function are not well understood. We investigated the use of ultrasound-guided photoacoustic (US/PA) imaging as a technique to visualize the distribution of microvascular endothelial cells within an optimized acellular construct upon re-endothelialization and perfusion conditioning. We also evaluated the vascular performance of the re-endothelialized scaffold using quantitative vascular corrosion casting (qVCC) and whole-blood perfusion. We found US/PA imaging was an effective technique to visualize the distribution of cells. Cellular retention following perfusion conditioning was also detected with US/PA imaging. Finally, we demonstrated that a partial recovery of vascular performance is possible following re-endothelialization-confirmed by fewer extravasations in qVCC and improved blood clearance following whole-blood perfusion.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Re-endothelialization is a method that enables decellularized tissue to become useful as a tissue engineering construct by creating a nutrient delivery and waste removal system for the entire construct. Our approach utilizes a decellularization method that retains the basement ECM of a highly vascularized tissue upon which endothelial cells can be injected to form an endothelium. The US/PA method allows for rapid visualization of cells within a construct several cm thick. This approach can be experimentally used to observe changes in cellular distribution over large intervals of time, to help optimize cell seeding parameters, and to verify cell retention within re-endothelialized constructs. This approach has temporal and depth advantages compared to section reconstruction and imaged fluorophores respectively.

Label-free Detection of Lymph Node Metastases with US-guided Functional Photoacoustic Imaging

PURPOSE

To determine the ability of ultrasonography (US)-guided spectroscopic photoacoustic (sPA) imaging to depict changes in blood oxygen saturation (SO2) in metastatic lymph nodes of a mouse model of oral cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All studies were performed by following protocols approved by the institutional animal care and use committee at the University of Texas at Austin. Coregistered US and photoacoustic images were acquired spanning volumes containing a total of 31 lymph nodes in 17 female nu/nu mice. The mice were either healthy (three mice, five nodes) or bearing a primary tumor consisting of luciferase-labeled FaDu cells (14 mice, 26 nodes). Ten photoacoustic images acquired with optical wavelengths spanning from 680 to 860 nm were spectrally unmixed by using a linear least-squares method to obtain sPA images. After imaging, histologic analysis enabled confirmation of the presence of micrometastases. Generalized estimating equations were used to compare metastatic and normal lymph nodes, with a P value of .05 taken to indicate a significant difference. Sensitivity and specificity were determined with a receiver operator characteristic curve constructed from the background-subtracted SO2 values.

RESULTS

Metastatic lymph nodes (n = 7) exhibited a significantly (P = .018) lower spatially averaged background-subtracted SO2 (mean, 5.4% ± 3.5 [standard error]) when compared with lymph nodes without metastases (mean, 13.7% ± 1.3; n = 24). This effect was observed throughout the entire volume of the nodes rather than being limited to the metastatic foci. The change in SO2, which was inversely related to the size of the metastasis, was detectable in metastases as small as 2.6 × 10(-3) mm(3).

CONCLUSION

The results show that US-guided sPA imaging is capable of depicting changes in SO2 in lymph nodes that were correlated with metastatic invasion.