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The Satiation Framework: Exploring processes that contribute to satiation. Physiol Behav 2021; 236:113419. [PMID: 33838204 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Satiation has been described as a process that leads to the termination of eating and controls meal size. However, studies have shown that the termination of eating can be influenced by multiple behavioral and biological processes over the course of a meal as well as those related to the context in which the meal is consumed. To expand understanding of how individuals experience satiation during a meal, we recently developed the Reasons Individuals Stop Eating Questionnaire (RISE-Q). The development of the RISE-Q revealed five distinct factors reported to contribute to meal termination: Planned Amount, Self-Consciousness, Decreased Food Appeal, Physical Satisfaction, and Decreased Priority of Eating. Thus, we define satiation as a series of dynamic processes that emerge over the course of a meal to promote meal termination. We suggest that each of the factors identified by the RISE-Q represents a distinct process, and illustrate the contribution of each process to meal termination in the Satiation Framework. Within this framework the prominence of each process as a reason to stop eating likely depends on meal context in addition to individual variability. Therefore, we discuss contexts in which different processes may be salient as determinants of meal termination. Expanding the definition of satiation to include several dynamic processes as illustrated in the Satiation Framework will help to stimulate investigation and understanding of the complex nature of meal termination.
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Wu F, Sample KL, Haws KL. The messy satiation effect: Understanding how eating messily can accelerate the rate of satiation and reduce consumption. Appetite 2020; 159:105057. [PMID: 33271198 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2020.105057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The visual presentation of food plays an important role in shaping the food choices that consumers make. In the current research, we explore the impact that one's eating manner, and by extension, how messy or neat food becomes as a result, can have on enjoyment and consumption over the course of an eating episode. In a series of five studies, we find that eating in a messy manner, which degrades the visual appeal of one's food, can accelerate the rate of satiation and decrease consumption, a phenomenon we term the messy satiation effect. This effect occurs because the disgust response induced by the visual degradation of a food's presentation decreases tastiness perceptions. Accordingly, we position the messy satiation effect as a simple intervention that can be used in some circumstances to combat overconsumption and therefore increase healthier eating patterns through reducing intake, thus providing contributions to both theory and practice.
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Williams DL, Coiduras II, Parise EM, Maske CB. Hindbrain orexin 1 receptors blunt intake suppression by gastrointestinal nutrients and cholecystokinin in male rats. Peptides 2020; 133:170351. [PMID: 32579900 PMCID: PMC7556705 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2020.170351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Hypothalamic orexin neurons project to many brain areas, including hindbrain structures such as the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) and area postrema (AP), where orexin 1 receptors (OX1Rs) are expressed. Hindbrain administration of orexin-A increases feeding and meal size, and blockade of hindbrain OX1Rs with the selective antagonist SB334867 has the opposite effect. Here we asked whether hindbrain OX1R stimulation or blockade alter rats' sensitivity to gastrointestinal satiety signals. Rats received 4th intracerebroventricular (icv) injections of vehicle or orexin-A, at a dose with no effect on its own, prior to an intragastric (IG) infusion of saline or a satiating volume of Ensure. IG Ensure suppressed subsequent chow intake, but orexin-A pretreatment significantly attenuated this IG nutrient-induced satiety at 2 h into the dark phase. In a second experiment, rats received NTS injections of vehicle or orexin-A before intraperitoneal (IP) injection of vehicle or the satiation hormone cholecystokinin (CCK). NTS orexin-A pretreatment completely blocked the intake-suppressive effect of CCK on dark-phase chow intake. Finally, we investigated the role of endogenous hindbrain OX1R activation by pretreating rats with 4th-icv injection of vehicle or SB334867 followed by IG infusion of saline or Ensure just before a chocolate Ensure licking test session. IG nutrient infusion suppressed Ensure intake, and blockade of hindbrain OX1Rs significantly prolonged that intake-suppressive effect. We conclude that hindbrain OX1Rs are a mechanism though which hypothalamic orexin neurons can reduce animals' sensitivity to gastrointestinal nutrient load, allowing them to consume more food.
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Hazut N, Rapps K, Weller A, Susswein AJ. Nitric oxide and l-arginine have mixed effects on mammalian feeding in condition of a high motivation to feed. Appetite 2020; 158:105011. [PMID: 33121999 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2020.105011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Feeding inhibition caused by satiation in rats is partially mediated by the unconventional neurotransmitter nitric oxide (NO). Thus, in satiated rats blocking NO production increases feeding, and treatment with the NO precursor l-arginine or with an NO donor reduces feeding beyond that caused by satiation. Do NO and l-arginine also inhibit feeding when feeding motivation is high? When feeding motivation in satiated animals was hedonically increased by offering a highly attractive food, blocking NO production reduced the quantity eaten, rather than increasing it, indicating that hedonic aspects of food are partially mediated by NO. Increasing NO via an NO donor or l-arginine did not further increase the quantity eaten, indicating a ceiling effect. The NO donor, but not l-arginine, also decreased some motivation-dependent parameters of feeding. When feeding motivation was increased by hunger, quantities of food eaten were unaffected by an NO donor, blocker or precursor, with only the blocker of NO production affecting feeding patterning. We also examined effects on feeding of dissolving l-arginine in drinking water over 3 weeks. Chronic l-arginine administration had different effects during the first and in subsequent weeks, increasing feeding at first, but not later. The data indicate that NO has complex, state dependent effects on both the quantity of food eaten, and on patterns of feeding, probably reflecting different sites and mechanisms of action in the nervous system.
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Moon J, Koh G. Clinical Evidence and Mechanisms of High-Protein Diet-Induced Weight Loss. J Obes Metab Syndr 2020; 29:166-173. [PMID: 32699189 PMCID: PMC7539343 DOI: 10.7570/jomes20028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 04/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Several clinical trials have found that consuming more protein than the recommended dietary allowance not only reduces body weight (BW), but also enhances body composition by decreasing fat mass while preserving fat-free mass (FFM) in both low-calorie and standard-calorie diets. Fairly long-term clinical trials of 6-12 months reported that a high-protein diet (HPD) provides weight-loss effects and can prevent weight regain after weight loss. HPD has not been reported to have adverse effects on health in terms of bone density or renal function in healthy adults. Among gut-derived hormones, glucagon-like peptide-1, cholecystokinin, and peptide tyrosine-tyrosine reduce appetite, while ghrelin enhances appetite. HPD increases these anorexigenic hormone levels while decreasing orexigenic hormone levels, resulting in increased satiety signaling and, eventually, reduced food intake. Additionally, elevated diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT), increased blood amino acid concentration, increased hepatic gluconeogenesis, and increased ketogenesis caused by higher dietary protein contribute to increased satiety. The mechanism by which HPD increases energy expenditure involves two aspects: first, proteins have a markedly higher DIT than carbohydrates and fats. Second, protein intake prevents a decrease in FFM, which helps maintain resting energy expenditure despite weight loss. In conclusion, HPD is an effective and safe tool for weight reduction that can prevent obesity and obesity-related diseases. However, long-term clinical trials spanning more than 12 months should be conducted to further substantiate HPD effects.
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Krieger JP. Intestinal glucagon-like peptide-1 effects on food intake: Physiological relevance and emerging mechanisms. Peptides 2020; 131:170342. [PMID: 32522585 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2020.170342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The gut-brain hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) has received immense attention over the last couple of decades for its widespread metabolic effects. Notably, intestinal GLP-1 has been recognized as an endogenous satiation signal. Yet, the underlying mechanisms and the pathophysiological relevance of intestinal GLP-1 in obesity remain unclear. This review first recapitulates early findings indicating that intestinal GLP-1 is an endogenous satiation signal, whose eating effects are primarily mediated by vagal afferents. Second, on the basis of recent findings challenging a paracrine action of intestinal GLP-1, a new model for the mediation of GLP-1 effects on eating by two discrete vagal afferent subsets will be proposed. The central mechanisms processing the vagal anorexigenic signals need however to be further delineated. Finally, the idea that intestinal GLP-1 secretion and/or effects on eating are altered in obesity and play a pathophysiological role in the development of obesity will be discussed. In summary, despite the successful therapeutic use of GLP-1 receptor agonists as anti-obesity drugs, the eating effects of intestinal GLP-1 still remain to be elucidated. Specifically, the findings presented here call for a further evaluation of the vago-central neuronal substrates activated by intestinal GLP-1 and for further investigation of its pathophysiological role in obesity.
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Suarez AN, Liu CM, Cortella AM, Noble EE, Kanoski SE. Ghrelin and Orexin Interact to Increase Meal Size Through a Descending Hippocampus to Hindbrain Signaling Pathway. Biol Psychiatry 2020; 87:1001-1011. [PMID: 31836175 PMCID: PMC7188579 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Memory and cognitive processes influence the amount of food consumed during a meal, yet the neurobiological mechanisms mediating these effects are poorly understood. The hippocampus (HPC) has recently emerged as a brain region that integrates feeding-relevant biological signals with learning and memory processes to regulate feeding. We investigated whether the gut-derived hormone ghrelin acts in the ventral HPC (vHPC) to increase meal size through interactions with gut-derived satiation signaling. METHODS Interactions between vHPC ghrelin signaling, gut-derived satiation signaling, feeding, and interoceptive discrimination learning were assessed via rodent behavioral neuropharmacological approaches. Downstream neural pathways were identified using transsynaptic virus-based tracing strategies. RESULTS vHPC ghrelin signaling counteracted the food intake-reducing effects produced by various peripheral biological satiation signals, including cholecystokinin, exendin-4 (a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist), amylin, and mechanical distension of the stomach. Furthermore, vHPC ghrelin signaling produced interoceptive cues that generalized to a perceived state of energy deficit, thereby providing a potential mechanism for the attenuation of satiation processing. Neuroanatomical tracing identified a multiorder connection from vHPC neurons to lateral hypothalamic area orexin (hypocretin)-producing neurons that project to the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus in the hindbrain. Lastly, vHPC ghrelin signaling increased spontaneous meal size via downstream orexin receptor signaling in the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus. CONCLUSIONS vHPC ghrelin signaling increases meal size by counteracting the efficacy of various gut-derived satiation signals. These effects occur via downstream orexin signaling to the hindbrain laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, thereby highlighting a novel hippocampus-hypothalamus-hindbrain pathway regulating meal size control.
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Jarmolowicz DP, Schneider TD, Carrillo A, Hudnall JL, Stancato SS. Blunted satiety in fatty Zucker rats. Behav Brain Res 2020; 383:112507. [PMID: 31987930 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Levels of weight gain have hit an epidemic level with rates of overweight and obesity diagnoses topping all-time highs. Elevated body weight has been linked to increased rates of cardiac problems, blood pressure issues, and risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Leptin, a hormone produced by the body that is involved in energy balance by inhibiting hunger has been implicated as an underlying mechanism that differentially contributes to food-seeking motivation. Using a scientifically validated animal model of obesity, the fatty Zucker rat, which has mutated leptin receptor genes, leptin's role in behavioral motivation can be assessed. Animals were on a 2 -h food access restriction with one-hour access to rewards in session and one hour of free-feeding access. Pre-session and post-session food access differences were evaluated in looking at motivation for food rewards during satiation while responding on differing levels of fixed-ratio schedules. The results showed robust differential behavior from satiation, demonstrating a basis for a biological mechanism involving leptin sensitivity that could underlie obesity. Although further experimentation is needed, understanding leptin could help bridge the gap in our understanding of satiation and non-satiation.
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Gelberg L, Rico MW, Herman DR, Belin TR, Chandler M, Ramirez E, Love S, McCarthy WJ. Comparative effectiveness trial comparing MyPlate to calorie counting for mostly low-income Latino primary care patients of a federally qualified community health center: study design, baseline characteristics. BMC Public Health 2019; 19:990. [PMID: 31340800 PMCID: PMC6651946 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-019-7294-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/10/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Primary care-based behavior change obesity treatment has long featured the Calorie restriction (CC), portion control approach. By contrast, the MyPlate-based obesity treatment approach encourages eating more high-satiety/high-satiation foods and requires no calorie-counting. This report describes study methods of a comparative effectiveness trial of CC versus MyPlate. It also describes baseline findings involving demographic characteristics and their associations with primary outcome measures and covariates, including satiety/satiation, dietary quality and acculturation. METHODS A comparative effectiveness trial was designed to compare the CC approach (n = 130) versus a MyPlate-based approach (n = 131) to treating patient overweight. Intervenors were trained community health workers. The 11 intervention sessions included two in-home health education sessions, two group education sessions, and seven telephone coaching sessions. Questionnaire and anthropometric assessments occurred at baseline, 6- and 12 months; food frequency questionnaires were administered at baseline and 12 months. Participants were overweight adult primary care patients of a federally qualified health center in Long Beach, California. Two measures of satiety/satiation and one measure of post-meal hunger comprised the primary outcome measures. Secondary outcomes included weight, waist circumference, blood pressure, dietary quality, sugary beverage intake, water intake, fruit and vegetable fiber intake, mental health and health-related quality of life. Covariates included age, gender, nativity status (U.S.-born, not U.S.-born), race/ethnicity, education, and acculturation. ANALYSIS Baseline characteristics were compared using chi square tests. Associations between covariates and outcome measures were evaluated using multiple regression and logistic regression. RESULTS Two thousand eighty-six adult patients were screened, yielding 261 enrollees who were 86% Latino, 8% African American, 4% White and 2% Other. Women predominated (95%). Mean age was 42 years. Most (82%) were foreign-born; 74% chose the Spanish language option. Mean BMI was 33.3 kg/m2; mean weight was 82 kg; mean waist circumference was 102 cm. Mean blood pressure was 122/77 mm. Study arms on key baseline measures did not differ except on dietary quality and sugary beverage intake. Nativity status was significantly associated with dietary quality. CONCLUSIONS The two treatment arms were well-balanced demographically at baseline. Nativity status is inversely related to dietary quality. TRIAL REGISTRATION NCT02514889 , posted on 8/4/2015.
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Gibbons C, Hopkins M, Beaulieu K, Oustric P, Blundell JE. Issues in Measuring and Interpreting Human Appetite (Satiety/ Satiation) and Its Contribution to Obesity. Curr Obes Rep 2019; 8:77-87. [PMID: 31037612 PMCID: PMC6517339 DOI: 10.1007/s13679-019-00340-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The goals of this paper are to report current research practices in investigations of human appetite control and to assess their relationships with emerging theoretical principles. Appetite is often distinguished by the separation of homeostatic and hedonic processes. RECENT FINDINGS This report assesses the validity of a homeostatic toolkit to measure subjectively perceived hunger and its relationship to the developing processes of satiation (control of meal size) and satiety (control of the post-eating period). The capacity of a procedure to measure the influence of hedonic processes on food intake is also evaluated. A major issue is the relationship between the pattern of eating behaviour (influenced by the underlying drive to eat and the inhibition induced by the act of eating itself) and the parallel underlying profile of hormonal and other metabolic biomarkers. Increasing recognition is being given to individual variability in the expression of appetite, and the fact that the use of the average (mean) response conceals important information about the nature of appetite control. There is a growing interest in the identification of satiety phenotypes that operate in parallel to metabolic phenotypes. Interestingly, energy expenditure (metabolic and behavioural) contributes to an energy balance framework for understanding energy intake (appetite).
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Sadler JR, Shearrer GE, Burger KS. Body mass variability is represented by distinct functional connectivity patterns. Neuroimage 2018; 181:55-63. [PMID: 29966718 PMCID: PMC9638963 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.06.082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2018] [Revised: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding weight-related differences in functional connectivity provides key insight into neurocognitive factors implicated in obesity. Here, we sampled three groups from human connectome project data: 1) 47 pairs of BMI-discordant twins (n = 94; average BMI-discordancy 6.7 ± 3.1 kg/m2), 2) 47 pairs of gender and BMI matched BMI-discordant, unrelated individuals, and 3) 47 pairs of BMI-similar twins, to test for body mass dependent differences in between network functional connectivity. Across BMI discordant samples, three networks appeared to be highly sensitive to weight status; specifically, a network comprised of gustatory processing regions, a visual processing network, and the default mode network (DMN). Further, in the BMI-discordant twin sample, twins with lower BMI had stronger connectivity between striatal/thalamic and prefrontal networks (pFWE = 0.04). We also observed that individuals with a higher BMI than their twin had stronger connectivity between cerebellar and insular networks (pFWE = 0.04). Connectivity patterns observed in the BMI-discordant twin sample were not seen in a BMI-similar sample, providing evidence that the results are specific to BMI discordance. Beyond the involvement of gustatory and visual networks and the DMN, little overlap in results were seen between the two BMI-discordant samples. In concordance with previous findings, we hypothesize that stronger cortical-striatal-thalamic connectivity associated with lower body mass in twins may facilitate increased regulation of hedonically motivated behaviors. In twins with higher body mass, increased cerebellar-insula connectivity may be associated with compromised satiation signaling, an interpretation dovetailing prior research. The lack of overlapping results between the two BMI discordant samples may be a function of higher study design sensitivity in the BMI-discordant twin sample, relative to the more generalizable results in the unrelated sample. These findings demonstrate that distinct connectivity patterns can represent weight variability, adding to mounting evidence that implicates atypical brain functioning with the accumulation and/or maintenance of elevated weight.
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Jeong JN. Effect of Pre-meal Water Consumption on Energy Intake and Satiety in Non-obese Young Adults. Clin Nutr Res 2018; 7:291-296. [PMID: 30406058 PMCID: PMC6209729 DOI: 10.7762/cnr.2018.7.4.291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 09/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
I determined whether water consumption reduces energy intake and affects satiety in non-obese young adults. The final subjects consisted of 15 individuals (8 women and 7 men) with average ages of 26.4 and 23.5 years for women and men, respectively. When subjects drank water before eating a test meal, they ate a lower amount of the test meal compared to eating test meals under waterless and postload water conditions (preload water: 123.3 g vs. waterless: 161.7 g or postload water: 163.3 g, p < 0.05). Water consumption after eating a test meal did not affect energy intake. When the subjects drank water before eating a test meal, despite consuming a lower amount, the subjects did not feel significantly less satiety than eating meals under waterless or postload water conditions. The finding that pre-meal water consumption led to a significant reduction in meal energy intake in young adults suggests that pre-meal water consumption may be an effective weight control strategy, although the mechanism of action is unknown.
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Bächler T, Geary N, Bueter M, Leeners B, Rehfeld JF, Lutz TA, Asarian L. RYGB increases the satiating effect of intrajejunal lipid infusions in female rats. Appetite 2018; 131:94-99. [PMID: 30118785 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2018.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Revised: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We used a novel rat model to investigate the physiological bases of early satiation after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery (RYGB). Female rats were subjected to RYGB or sham surgery. Chronic infusion catheters were placed in the Roux limb of RYGB rats and the corresponding anatomical locus of the jejuna of sham-RYGB rats. Rats were also ovariectomized and chronically treated with either estradiol (E2; 2 μg each 4th day SC) or the oil vehicle. Testing was begun 10-12 wk after surgery. Intrajejunal lipid infusions (10 min, 4.4 mL, 8.8 kcal) were performed just before test meals of a low-energy artificially sweetened gel diet (0.1 kcal/g) that RYGB rats ingest avidly. Intrajejunal lipid infusions reduced test-meal size more in RYGB rats than sham-operated rats, indicating that, at least after prolonged adaptation to surgery, the satiating actions of lipids acting intra- or post-jejunally are increased by RYGB and that accelerated meal appearance in the intestines after RYGB is not necessary for this effect. The satiating effects of intrajejunal lipid infusions were similar in E2-and oil-treated rats, suggesting that the effect was not dependent on an activational effect of estrogens. In a second experiment, pretreatment with the cholecystokinin A-receptor antagonist devazepide reduced the satiating effect of intrajejunal lipid infusions in E2-treated RYGB rats. Although these data are preliminary due to the smaller numbers of rats than in the first experiment, they suggest that cholecystokinin-mediated jejunal satiation contributes to early satiation after RYGB in ovariectomized rats with peri-ovulatory levels of estradiol. The results of these experiments may be relevant to understanding RYGB outcome in pre- and postmenopausal women.
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Keel PK, Haedt-Matt AA, Hildebrandt B, Bodell LP, Wolfe BE, Jimerson DC. Satiation deficits and binge eating: Probing differences between bulimia nervosa and purging disorder using an ad lib test meal. Appetite 2018; 127:119-125. [PMID: 29654850 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2018.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Revised: 04/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Purging disorder (PD) has been included as a named condition within the DSM-5 category of Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorder and differs from bulimia nervosa (BN) in the absence of binge-eating episodes. The current study evaluated satiation through behavioral and self-report measures to understand how this construct may explain distinct symptom presentations for bulimia nervosa (BN) and purging disorder (PD). Women (N = 119) were recruited from the community if they met DSM-5 criteria for BN (n = 57), PD (n = 31), or were free of eating pathology (n = 31 controls). Participants completed structured clinical interviews and questionnaires and an ad lib test meal during which they provided reports of subjective states. Significant group differences were found on self-reported symptoms, ad lib test meal intake, and subjective responses to food intake between individuals with eating disorders and controls and between BN and PD. Further, ad lib intake was associated with self-reported frequency and size of binge episodes. In a multivariable model, the amount of food consumed during binges as reported during clinical interviews predicted amount of food consumed during the ad lib test meal, controlling for other binge-related variables. Satiation deficits distinguish BN from PD and appear to be specifically linked to the size of binge episodes. Future work should expand exploration of physiological bases of these differences to contribute to novel interventions.
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Pasman WJ, Hendriks HFJ, Minekus MM, de Ligt RAF, Scholtes-Timmerman MJ, Clabbers NDS, Leonards NM, Johnson J, Bellmann S. Subjective feelings of appetite of wholegrain breakfasts evaluated under controlled, laboratory and 'at home' conditions. Physiol Behav 2018; 194:285-291. [PMID: 29913230 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Appetite regulating properties of foods are usually investigated under laboratory conditions, whereas in real life, foods are consumed under at home conditions. The objective of this study was to compare the acute effects of breakfasts when tested in a laboratory condition and in an at home condition. Appetite regulating properties of two bread breakfasts and two cereal breakfasts were also compared. SUBJECTS AND METHODS In this randomized cross-over trial balanced for laboratory and at home test conditions, thirty-two women consumed five breakfasts, i.e. two bread breakfasts, two cereal breakfasts and one fried-egg breakfast. Visual analogue scales for measuring appetite were captured via an on-line scoring system and were analyzed as incremental area under the curve, as satiation phase and as satiety phase. RESULTS Location effects were limited to two small effects only. An overall location effect in hunger feelings was observed (p = 0.040), which occurred specifically during the short satiation period (p = 0.0002) where hunger feelings scored higher under laboratory conditions. Similarly, a location effect was observed for desire to eat (p = 0.001); this was again higher under laboratory conditions. No other location effects were observed. Bread breakfasts did not differ in their appetite regulating properties. The Steel Cut oatmeal breakfast was reported to be more satiating (p = 0.001) as compared to the ready-to-eat cereal. CONCLUSIONS Whereas the five breakfasts varied somewhat in their appetite regulating properties, evaluation under laboratory conditions overall did not result in different appetite scores compared to the at home conditions. This suggests that at home testing may be a useful alternative to laboratory test conditions for nutrition research.
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Macronutrient manipulations of cheese resulted in lower energy content without compromising its satiating capacity. J Nutr Sci 2018; 7:e7. [PMID: 29430298 PMCID: PMC5799611 DOI: 10.1017/jns.2017.73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Revised: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Manipulation of food's macronutrient composition in order to reduce energy content without compromising satiating capacity may be helpful in body weight control. For cheeses, substituting fat with protein may provide such opportunity. We aimed at examining the acute effect of cheeses with different macronutrient compositions on accumulated energy intake and subjective appetite sensation. A total of thirty-nine normal-weight (average BMI 24·4 kg/m2) men and women completed the partly double-blind, randomised crossover study with high-protein/low-fat (HP/LF, 696 kJ), high-protein/high-fat (HP/HF, 976 kJ) and low-protein/high-fat (LP/HF, 771 kJ) cheeses. After overnight fasting, 80 g cheese were served with 70 g bread, 132 g juice and 125 g coffee/tea/water. Ad libitum spaghetti bolognaise was served after 3 h and energy intake assessed. Subjective appetite ratings were assessed using visual analogue scales. Composite appetite scores were calculated and evaluated relatively to energy intake. Total accumulated energy intake was 188·3 (se 97·4) kJ lower when consuming the HP/LF compared with the HP/HF (P ≤ 0·05), but, compared with the LP/HF cheese, the difference was not significant (177·0 (se 100·4) kJ lower; P = 0·08). In relation to energy intake, the composite appetite score was lower when consuming the HP/LF compared with the HP/HF (P = 0·003) and the LP/HF (P = 0·007) cheeses. Thereby, no compensatory eating following consumption of the HP/LF compared with the HP/HF cheese was found. The HP/LF cheese resulted in an increased feeling of satiety in relation to its lower energy content compared with both HP/HF and LP/HF cheeses.
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Davidson GR, Giesbrecht T, Thomas AM, Kirkham TC. Pre- and postprandial variation in implicit attention to food images reflects appetite and sensory-specific satiety. Appetite 2018; 125:24-31. [PMID: 29407747 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2018.01.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Revised: 12/29/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Implicit attentional processes are biased toward food-related stimuli, with the extent of that bias reflecting relative motivation to eat. These interactions have typically been investigated by comparisons between fasted and sated individuals. In this study, temporal changes in implicit attention to food were assessed in relation to natural, spontaneous changes in appetite occurring before and after an anticipated midday meal. Non-fasted adults performed an emotional blink of attention (EBA) task at intervals, before and after consuming preferred, pre-selected sandwiches to satiety. Participants were required to detect targets within a rapid visual stream, presented after task-irrelevant food (preferred or non-preferred sandwiches, or desserts) or non-food distractor images. All categories of food distractor preferentially captured attention even when appetite levels were low, but became more distracting as appetite increased preprandially, reducing task accuracy maximally as hunger peaked before lunch. Postprandially, attentional capture was markedly reduced for images of the specific sandwich type consumed and, to a lesser extent, for images of other sandwich types that had not been eaten. Attentional capture by images of desserts was unaffected by satiation. These findings support an important role of selective visual attention in the guidance of motivated behaviour. Naturalistic, meal-related changes in appetite are accompanied by changes in implicit attention to visual food stimuli that are easily detected using the EBA paradigm. Preprandial enhancement of attention capture by food cues likely reflects increases in the incentive motivational value of all food stimuli, perhaps providing an implicit index of wanting. Postprandial EBA responses confirm that satiation on a particular food results in relative inattention to that food, supporting an important attentional component in the operation of sensory-specific satiety.
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Cassie N, Anderson RL, Wilson D, Pawsey A, Mercer JG, Barrett P. Body weight loss, effective satiation and absence of homeostatic neuropeptide compensation in male Sprague Dawley rats schedule fed a protein crosslinked diet. Appetite 2017; 117:234-246. [PMID: 28687371 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Revised: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Food structure contributes to the induction of satiation and the maintenance of satiety following intake of a meal. There is evidence from human studies that protein-crosslinking of a milk-protein based meal may enhance satiety, but the mechanism underpinning this effect is unknown. We investigated whether a rat model would respond in a similar manner and might provide mechanistic insight into enhanced satiety by structural modification of a food source. Rats were schedule fed a modified AIN-93M based diet in a liquid form or protein-crosslinked to produce a soft-solid form. This was compared to a modified AIN-93M solid diet. Average daily caloric intake was in the order solid > liquid > crosslinked. Body composition was unaltered in the solid group, but there was a loss of fat in the liquid group and a loss of lean and fat tissue in the crosslinked group. Compared to rats fed a solid diet, acute responses in circulating GLP-1, leptin and insulin were eliminated or attenuated in rats fed a liquid or crosslinked diet. Quantification of homeostatic neuropeptide expression in the hypothalamus showed elevated levels of Npy and Agrp in rats fed the liquid diet. Measurement of food intake after a scheduled meal indicated that reduced energy intake of liquid and crosslinked diets is not due to enhancement of satiety. When continuously available ad-libitum, rats fed a liquid diet showed reduced weight gain despite greater 24 h caloric intake. During the dark phase, caloric intake was reduced, but compensated for during the light phase. We conclude that structural modification from a liquid to a solidified state is beneficial for satiation, with less of a detrimental effect on metabolic parameters and homeostatic neuropeptides.
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Zafra MA, Agüera AD, Molina F, Puerto A. Disruption of re-intake after partial withdrawal of gastric food contents in rats lesioned in the gelatinous part of the nucleus of the solitary tract. Appetite 2017; 113:231-238. [PMID: 28259536 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.02.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Revised: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Sensory information from the upper gastrointestinal tract is critical in food intake regulation. Signals from different levels of the digestive system are processed to the brain, among other systems, via the vagus nerve, which mainly projects towards the nucleus of the solitary tract (NST). The objective of this study was to analyze the participation of the gelatinous part (SolG) of the NST in short-term food intake. One-third of the stomach food content was withdrawn at 5 min after the end of a meal, and food was then available ad libitum for different time periods. SolG-lesioned and control animals ingested a similar amount of the initial liquid meal, but the former consumed significantly smaller amounts and failed to compensate for the food deficit, whereas the controls re-ingested virtually the same amount as extracted. These data suggest that the SolG, as in the case of related anatomical structures such as the vagus nerve or external lateral parabrachial subnucleus, may be relevant in particular circumstances that require the rapid processing of vagal-related food intake adjustment associated to the upper gastrointestinal tract.
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Bai JYH, Podlesnik CA. No impact of repeated extinction exposures on operant responding maintained by different reinforcer rates. Behav Processes 2017; 138:29-33. [PMID: 28216120 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2017.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2016] [Revised: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Greater rates of intermittent reinforcement in the presence of discriminative stimuli generally produce greater resistance to extinction, consistent with predictions of behavioral momentum theory. Other studies reveal more rapid extinction with higher rates of reinforcers - the partial reinforcement extinction effect. Further, repeated extinction often produces more rapid decreases in operant responding due to learning a discrimination between training and extinction contingencies. The present study examined extinction repeatedly with training with different rates of intermittent reinforcement in a multiple schedule. We assessed whether repeated extinction would reverse the pattern of greater resistance to extinction with greater reinforcer rates. Counter to this prediction, resistance to extinction was consistently greater across twelve assessments of training followed by six successive sessions of extinction. Moreover, patterns of responding during extinction resembled those observed during satiation tests, which should not alter discrimination processes with repeated testing. These findings join others suggesting operant responding in extinction can be durable across repeated tests.
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Lasschuijt MP, Mars M, Stieger M, Miquel-Kergoat S, de Graaf C, Smeets P. Comparison of oro-sensory exposure duration and intensity manipulations on satiation. Physiol Behav 2017; 176:76-83. [PMID: 28174138 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Revised: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Oro-sensory exposure (OSE) is an important factor in the regulation of food intake with increasing OSE leading to lower food intake. Oral processing time and taste intensity both play an important role in OSE but their individual contribution to satiation is unknown. We aimed to determine the independent and combined effects of oral processing time and taste intensity on satiation. Fifty eight participants (23±9y, BMI 22±2kg/m2) participated in a 2×2 factorial randomized crossover study in which they consumed one of four gel-based model foods until satiation during four sessions. Model foods were offered ad libitum and differed in texture (soft or hard texture, yielding shorter and longer oral processing time) and sweetness (low or high intensity). Model foods were isocaloric and were matched for flavor and palatability. Outcome measures were intake of the model food and the microstructure of eating behavior, such as number of chews and eating rate. There was an overall significant effect of texture (p<0.001) but not sweetness (p=0.33) on intake with a 29.2% higher intake of the soft model foods compared to the hard model foods. After correction for palatability the difference in intake between the soft and hard model foods was 21.5% (p<0.001). The number of chews was significantly lower for the soft (10.1±6.2) than for the hard (26.9±6.2) model foods (p<0.001), which resulted in a significantly lower eating rate (soft, 26.3±10.2 and hard, 15.3±7.1g/min, p<0.001). These results show that increasing texture hardness of gel model foods decreases food intake independent of sweet taste intensity. The higher number of chews and faster eating rate may cause this effect. In conclusion, oro-sensory exposure duration rather than taste intensity appears to be the main determinant of food intake.
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Ibarra A, Olli K, Pasman W, Hendriks H, Alhoniemi E, Raza GS, Herzig KH, Tiihonen K. Effects of polydextrose with breakfast or with a midmorning preload on food intake and other appetite-related parameters in healthy normal-weight and overweight females: An acute, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, and crossover study. Appetite 2016; 110:15-24. [PMID: 27916475 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2016.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2016] [Revised: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Polydextrose (PDX) reduces subsequent energy intake (EI) when administered at midmorning in single-blind trials of primarily normal-weight men. However, it is unclear if this effect also occurs when PDX is given at breakfast time. Furthermore, for ecological validity, it is desirable to study a female population, including those at risk for obesity. We studied the effects of PDX, served as part of a breakfast or midmorning preload, on subsequent EI and other appetite-related parameters in healthy normal-weight and overweight females. Per earlier studies, the primary outcome was defined as the difference in subsequent EI when PDX was consumed at midmorning versus placebo. Thirty-two volunteers were enrolled in this acute, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, and crossover trial to examine the effects of 12.5 g of PDX, administered as part of a breakfast or midmorning preload, on subsequent EI, subjective feelings of appetite, well-being, and mood. Gastric emptying rates and the blood concentrations of glucose, insulin, cholecystokinin, ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), and peptide tyrosine-tyrosine were measured in the group that received PDX as part of their breakfast. There were no differences in EI between volunteers who were fed PDX and placebo. PDX intake with breakfast tended to elevate blood glucose (P = 0.06) during the postabsorptive phase, significantly lowered insulin by 15.7% (P = 0.04), and increased GLP-1 by 39.9% (P = 0.02); no other effects on blood parameters or gastric emptying rates were observed. PDX intake at midmorning reduced hunger by 31.4% during the satiation period (P = 0.02); all other subjective feelings of appetite were unaffected. Volunteers had a uniform mood profile during the study. PDX was well tolerated, causing one mild adverse event throughout the trial.
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Martin AA, Ferriday D, Rogers PJ, Brunstrom JM. Modulation of sweet preference by the actual and anticipated consequences of eating. Appetite 2016; 107:575-584. [PMID: 27614211 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2016.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2016] [Revised: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Previous research has shown that non-human animals exhibit an inverted-U pattern of sweet preference, with consumption increasing across moderate levels of sweetness and then declining for high levels of sweetness. In rodents, this pattern reflects an avoidance of the postingestive effects of consuming energy-dense sugar solutions (conditioned satiation). Here, we examined whether humans also adjust their preferences to compensate for the anticipated energy content/satiating outcomes of consuming sweetened foods. In two experiments (each N = 40), participants were asked to taste and imagine eating small (15 g) and large (250 g) portions of five novel desserts that varied in sweetness. Participants evaluated the desserts' expected satiety, expected satiation, and expected sickliness. A measure of estimated energy content was also derived using a computerized energy compensation test. This procedure was completed before and after consuming a standard lunch. Across both experiments, results confirmed that participants preferred a less sweet dessert when asked to imagine eating a large versus a small portion, and when rating the dessert in a fed versus fasted state. We also obtained evidence that participants anticipated more energy from the sweeter desserts (even in Experiment 2 when half of the participants were informed that the desserts were equated for energy content). However we found only partial evidence for anticipated satiation-expected sickliness was related systematically to increases in sweetness, but expected satiation and expected satiety were only weakly influenced. These findings raise questions about the role of sweetness in the control of food intake (in humans) and the degree to which 'sweet-calorie learning' occurs in complex dietary environments where sweetness may actually be a poor predictor of the energy content of foods.
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May AA, Liu M, Woods SC, Begg DP. CCK increases the transport of insulin into the brain. Physiol Behav 2016; 165:392-7. [PMID: 27570192 PMCID: PMC5028313 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Food intake occurs in bouts or meals, and numerous meal-generated signals have been identified that act to limit the size of ongoing meals. Hormones such as cholecystokinin (CCK) are secreted from the intestine as ingested food is being processed, and in addition to aiding the digestive process, they provide a signal to the brain that contributes to satiation, limiting the size of the meal. The potency of CCK to elicit satiation is enhanced by elevated levels of adiposity signals such as insulin. In the present experiments we asked whether CCK and insulin interact at the level of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). We first isolated rat brain capillary endothelial cells that comprise the BBB and found that they express the mRNA for both the CCK1R and the insulin receptor, providing a basis for a possible interaction. We then administered insulin intraperitoneally to another group of rats and 15min later administered CCK-8 intraperitoneally to half of those rats. After another 15min, CSF and blood samples were obtained and assayed for immunoreactive insulin. Plasma insulin was comparably elevated above baseline in both the CCK-8 and control groups, indicating that the CCK had no effect on circulating insulin levels given these parameters. In contrast, rats administered CCK had CSF-insulin levels that were more than twice as high as those of control rats. We conclude that circulating CCK greatly facilitates the transport of insulin into the brain, likely by acting directly at the BBB. These findings imply that in circumstances in which the plasma levels of both CCK and insulin are elevated, such as during and soon after meals, satiation is likely to be due, in part, to this newly-discovered synergy between CCK and insulin.
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Witt U. The evolution of consumption and its welfare effects. JOURNAL OF EVOLUTIONARY ECONOMICS 2016; 27:273-293. [PMID: 28392626 PMCID: PMC5364267 DOI: 10.1007/s00191-016-0459-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In this paper the evolution of consumption is explained on the basis of a theory that connects preferences over actions to the motivational forces driving actions. More specifically, the hypotheses about what motivates consumption activities draw on insights from biology, behavioral science, and psychology. With secularly rising income, the growing consumption opportunities and the expanding consumption alter the underlying motivational forces and induce a change of preferences. As a consequence, the structure of consumption expenditures is systematically transformed. In the light of this explanation, the paper analyzes the effects of the growth and transformation of consumption on individual welfare. As turns out, the motivations driving the growth of consumption do not necessarily imply that this growth indeed results in welfare increases, particularly when the ability to spend on consumption is already high. Moreover, when preferences change, the measurement of the welfare effects of the growth and transformation of consumption depends on the arbitrary choice of a reference point. This implies an ambiguity that raises further queries about the normative foundations of the ubiquitous calls for continued consumption growth.
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