Functional expression of the CMP-sialic acid transporter in Escherichia coli and its identification as a simple mobile carrier

The architectural conservation of nucleotide sugar transport proteins (NSTs) enabled the theoretical prediction of putative NSTs in diverse gene databases. In the human genome, 17 NST sequences have been identified but only six have been unequivocally characterized with respect to their transport specificities. Defining transport characteristics of recombinant NSTs has become a major challenge because true zero background systems are widely absent. Production of recombinant NSTs in heterologous systems has developed multifunctionality for some NSTs leading to a novel level of complexity in the field. Assuming that (1) the specificity of NSTs is determined at the primary sequence level and (2) the proteins are autonomously functional units, final definition of the substrate specificity will depend on the use of isolated transport proteins. Herein, we describe the first report of the functional expression of mouse CMP-sialic acid transporter (CST) in Escherichia coli and thus provide significant progress towards the production of transporter proteins in quantities suitable for functional and structural analyses. Recovery of the active NST from inclusion bodies was achieved after solubilization with 8 M urea and stepwise renaturation. After reconstitution into phospholipid vesicles, the recombinant protein demonstrated specific transport for CMP-N-acetylneuraminic acid (CMP-Neu5Ac) with no transport of UDP-sugars. Kinetic studies carried out with CMP-Neu5Ac and established CMP-Neu5Ac antagonist's evaluated natural conformation of the reconstituted protein and clearly demonstrate that the transporter acts as a simple mobile carrier.

Isothermal titration calorimetric study of RNase-A kinetics (cCMP --> 3'-CMP) involving end-product inhibition

PURPOSE

Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and progress curve analysis was used to measure the enzyme kinetic parameters (KM and kcat) of the hydrolysis of cCMP by RNase-A, a reaction that includes end-product competitive inhibition by 3'-CMP.

METHODS

The heat generated from injection of 9-15 microl cCMP (20 mM) into bovine pancreatic RNase-A (600 nM) in 50 mM Na+ acetate buffer (pH 5.5; 37 degrees C) was monitored for 1500-2000 s. Thermal power (dQ/dt), equal to (1)/deltaH(app) x d(cCMP)/dt was recorded every 1 s. The end-product inhibition constant (Kp) and enthalpy of the inhibitor binding interaction was obtained from the saturation data of 60 sequential injections of 3'-CMP (1.2 mM) into 0.05 mM RNase-A. The data of the plot of -d[cCMP]/dt against [cCMP] were fitted to kinetic equations incorporating Kp to yield KM and kcat.

RESULTS

DeltaH(app) for each run was obtained by integration of the progress curve. The plot of -d[cCMP]/dt against [cCMP] yielded the kinetic parameters KM = 105.3 microM, 121.6 microM, and 131.3 microM; kcat = 1.63 s(-1), 1.56 s(-1), and 1.71 s(-1). The end-product bound with 1:1 stoichiometry and Kp = 53.2 microM.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of progress curve analysis and ITC allowed rapid and facile measurement of the kinetic parameters for catalytic conversion of cCMP to 3'-CMP by RNase-A, a reaction complicated by end-product inhibition.

ITC in the post-genomic era...? Priceless

The information available after decoding the genome of the human species and many others is opening the possibility of new approaches to target thousands of protein interactions critical for a continuously increasing list of genetic and infectious diseases and pathologies, and to understand complex regulatory pathways and interaction networks describing cell function and interrelation. There is a need for a reliable technique offering the capability of measuring accurately macromolecular interactions (e.g. protein/ligand, protein/protein, protein/nucleic acid) in the laboratory. Compared to other analytical techniques, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) exhibits some important advantages for characterizing intermolecular interactions and binding equilibria. ITC is suitable for characterizing both low affinity interactions (e.g. protein network regulation and natural ligands) and high affinity interactions (e.g. rational drug design). Considering the advanced technological level reached as well as the outstanding quality of the information accessible through this technique, ITC is expected to play a very prominent role in the next years in the areas of rational drug design and protein network regulation.

Genetic complementation reveals a novel human congenital disorder of glycosylation of type II, due to inactivation of the Golgi CMP-sialic acid transporter

We have identified a homozygous G>A substitution in the donor splice site of intron 6 (IVS6 + 1G>A) of the cytidine monophosphate (CMP)-sialic acid transporter gene of Lec2 cells as the mutation responsible for their asialo phenotype. These cells were used in complementation studies to test the activity of the 2 CMP-sialic acid transporter cDNA alleles of a patient devoid of sialyl-Le(x) expression on polymorphonuclear cells. No complementation was obtained with either of the 2 patient alleles, whereas full restoration of the sialylated phenotype was obtained in the Lec2 cells transfected with the corresponding human wild-type transcript. The inactivation of one patient allele by a double microdeletion inducing a premature stop codon at position 327 and a splice mutation of the other allele inducing a 130-base pair (bp) deletion and a premature stop codon at position 684 are proposed to be the causal defects of this disease. A 4-base insertion in intron 6 was found in the mother and is proposed to be responsible for the splice mutation. We conclude that this defect is a new type of congenital disorder of glycosylation (CDG) of type IIf affecting the transport of CMP-sialic acid into the Golgi apparatus.

Phosphorylation of Cytidine, Deoxycytidine, and Their Analog Monophosphates by Human UMP/CMP Kinase Is Differentially Regulated by ATP and Magnesium

Human UMP/CMP kinase (cytidylate kinase; EC 2.7.4.14) is responsible for phosphorylation of CMP, UMP, and deoxycytidine monophosphate (dCMP) and also plays an important role in the activation of pyrimidine analogs, some of which are clinically useful anticancer or antiviral drugs. Previous kinetic data using recombinant or highly purified human UMP/CMP kinase showed that dCMP, as well as pyrimidine analog monophosphates, were much poorer substrates than CMP or UMP for this enzyme. This implies that other unidentified mechanisms must be involved to make phosphorylation of dCMP or pyrimidine analog monophosphates inside cells by this enzyme possible. Here, we reevaluated the optimal reaction conditions for human recombinant human UMP/CMP kinase to phosphorylate dCMP and CMP (referred as dCMPK and CMPK activities). We found that ATP and magnesium were important regulators of the kinase activities of this enzyme. Free magnesium enhanced dCMPK activity but inhibited CMPK activity. Free ATP or excess ATP/magnesium, on the other hand, inhibited dCMPK but not CMPK reactions. The differential regulation of dCMPK versus CMPK activities by ATP or magnesium was also seen in other 2'-deoxypyrimidine analog monophosphates (deoxyuridine monophosphate, 5-fluorodeoxyuridine monophosphate, 1-beta-D-arabinofuranosylcytosine monophosphate, and gemcitabine monophosphate) versus their ribose-counterparts (UMP and 5-fluorouridine monophosphate), in a similar manner. The data suggest that the active sites of human UMP/CMP kinase for dCMP and for CMP cannot be identical. Furthermore, enzyme inhibition studies demonstrated that CMP could inhibit dCMP phosphorylation in a noncompetitive manner, with Ki values much higher than its own Km values. We thus propose novel models for the phosphorylation action of human UMP/CMP kinase.

IR and Raman study on the interactions of the 5'-GMP and 5'-CMP phosphate groups with Mg(II), Ca(II), Sr(II), Ba(II), Cr(III), Co(II), Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II), Al(III) and Ga(III)

The chief motive behind this research is the interest provoked by the presence of metal ions as necessary stabilizers of the negative charges of phosphate groups in nucleic acids. The effect that the presence of different metal ions produces on the band principally assigned to the nu(s) PO(3)(2-) mode has been studied using FT-IR and FT-Raman spectroscopy. The results obtained reveal the diagnostic capacity of these techniques in determining the type of metal ion interaction with respect to the mononucleotides that form DNA and RNA, providing a tool for improving the knowledge of the stabilizing or destabilizing effects of these ions on such macromolecules. The metal complexes of the ribonucleotides 5'-CMP and 5'-GMP with Mg(II), Ca(II), Sr(II), Ba(II), Cr(III), Co(II), Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II), Al(III) and Ga(III) were obtained in this study. After studying and analyzing the IR and Raman spectra of all these complexes and comparing them with the spectra of the corresponding disodium salts, it was verified that, independently of the type of nucleotide involved, the presence of the metal in the vicinity of the phosphate group produces an alteration in the aforementioned nu(s) PO(3)(2-) band. This effect is related to the type of interaction that the phosphate group has with the metal. Three components are observed: (1) one near 983-975 cm(-1) (detectable in IR and Raman), associated with phosphate groups in an electrostatic type of interaction with the metal ion, separated by two or more water molecules; (2) another near 989-985 cm(-1) (only in IR), associated with phosphate groups in indirect interaction through the water molecules of the coordination sphere of the metal ions; and (3) the IR and Raman bands near 1014-1001 cm(-1), which represent phosphate groups directly bonded to the metal ion. These results are supported by the behavior of 5'-CMP in aqueous solution in the presence of Mg(II) ions.

Hydrolysis of RNA monomers by extracts of Aspergillus niger NRRL3

Extracts of Aspergillus niger NRRL3 catalyzed dephosphorylation of AMP, GMP, CMP and UMP over a wide range of pH values from pH 1.5 to pH 10. They also catalyzed hydrolytic deamination of only cytidine out of the tested ribonucleotides, ribonucleosides and bases. Neither cleavage of the N-glycosidic linkages of these nucleotides nor those of the corresponding nucleosides could be effected by the extracts. Phosphate liberation from the four RNA monomers seemed to be effected by two phosphate-non repressible phosphatases, acid and alkaline. Optimum activity of the acid phosphatase with all the substrates was at pH2 and 40 degrees C while that of the alkaline phosphatase was at pH8 and 40 degrees-70 degrees C. Affinities of both phosphatases for the different ribonucleotides were in the order of magnitude AMP, CMP and phph > GMP > UMP. Freezing and thawing of the extracts had no effect either on the activities of two phosphatases or on that of the aminohydrolase. However, heating the extracts at 55 degrees for 25 min, in absence of the substrate, inactivated the phosphatases and had no effect on the deaminase. No evidence for the involvement of specific nucleotidases in ribonucleotides dephosphorylation was recorded.

Inhibitory effect of pyrimidine and purine nucleotides on the multiplication of Babesia gibsoni: possible cause of low parasitemia and simultaneous reticulocytosis in canine babesiosis

The present study was conducted to determine the cause of low parasitemia and simultaneous reticulocytosis in canine babesiosis. The parasitemia was significantly decreased in in vitro cultures of Babesia gibsoni by the pretreatment of host canine erythrocytes with lead acetate, which is a specific inhibitor of pyrimidine 5'-nucleotidase subclass I (P5N-I). The serum from dogs chronically infected with B. gibsoni did not decrease the activities of hexokinase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase or 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase in canine reticulocytes, although it was previously reported that this serum had inhibitory effects on both the maturation of reticulocytes and the canine P5N-I and purine-specific 5'-nucleotidase activities. Furthermore, the in vitro multiplication of B. gibsoni was significantly inhibited by pyrimidine nucleotides such as cytidine 5'-monophosphate (5'-CMP), which is preferentially catalyzed by P5N-I and also inhibits the morphological maturation of canine reticulocytes. Purine nucleotides such as inosine 5'-monophosphate (5'-IMP) also had an inhibitory effect on the multiplication of this parasite. These results suggest that nucleotides such as 5'-CMP and 5'-IMP might accumulate in young erythrocytes and/or serum in dogs infected with B. gibsoni as a result of the decreased activity of erythrocyte 5'-nucleotidase, and the accumulation of these nucleotides might inhibit the multiplication of this parasite and simultaneously retard the maturation of reticulocytes. The results obtained from the in vitro examinations in the present study may partially clarify the relationship between low parasitemia and simultaneous reticulocytosis in vivo in canine babesiosis.

Enthalpy arrays

We report the fabrication of enthalpy arrays and their use to detect molecular interactions, including protein-ligand binding, enzymatic turnover, and mitochondrial respiration. Enthalpy arrays provide a universal assay methodology with no need for specific assay development such as fluorescent labeling or immobilization of reagents, which can adversely affect the interaction. Microscale technology enables the fabrication of 96-detector enthalpy arrays on large substrates. The reduction in scale results in large decreases in both the sample quantity and the measurement time compared with conventional microcalorimetry. We demonstrate the utility of the enthalpy arrays by showing measurements for two protein-ligand binding interactions (RNase A + cytidine 2'-monophosphate and streptavidin + biotin), phosphorylation of glucose by hexokinase, and respiration of mitochondria in the presence of 2,4-dinitrophenol uncoupler.

[Binding of unnatural alpha,beta-oligocytidylates with DNA duplexes]

Binding of short fluorescently labeled AT-containing DNA duplexes with modified oligocytidylates is studied. The latter are modified to contain unnatural alpha-anomers along with natural beta-nucleotides; the nucleotide composition is selected according to putative pattern of unconventional triplex formation between duplex and oligomer bases. Nondenaturing gel electrophoresis is used to study complexation of fluorescent duplexes with cytidyl oligomers and oligocytidylate self-association at low temperatures. A DNA duplex of random AT composition is shown to bind with an excess of the corresponding oligocytidylate in 0.1 M Tris-HCl in the presence of Mg2+. Binding is observed at neutral pH values, while more basic pH (8.0) prevents complexation of the AT duplex and oligocytidylate. Contrary to oligonucleotides of irregular composition, a regular dA30:dT30 duplex does not bind with the dC strand. It is also shown that alternating self-complementary duplex d(AT)16 and oligocytidylate d(CbetaCalpha)15 do not form complexes, and poly-dC self-associates are formed instead. The effect of 2'-O-methylation of the third strand on complex formation and self-association is also analyzed. The results suggest that a modified oligocytidylate binds with a random-composition duplex, albeit with lower efficiency.

Quantitative determination of noncovalent binding interactions using automated nanoelectrospray mass spectrometry

Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) has proven to be an extremely powerful tool for studying biomolecular structures and noncovalent interactions. Here we report a method using a fully automated, chip-based nanoESI-MS system to determine the dissociation constants (Kd) for the complexes of two different proteins with their ligands. The automated nanoelectrospray system, consisting of the NanoMate and ESI chip, serves functionally as a combination of autosampler and nanoelectrospray ionization source. This system provides all the advantages of conventional nanoelectrospray plus automated, high-throughput analyses without carryover. The automated nanoESI system was used to investigate quantitative noncovalent interactions between ribonuclease A (RNase A) and cytidylic acid ligands (2'-CMP, CTP), a well-characterized model protein-ligand complex, and between an inactive endocellulase mutant (Thermobifida fusca Cel6A D117Acd) and four oligosaccharide ligands (cellotriose, cellotetraose, cellopentaose, cellohexaose). Both titration and competitive binding approaches were performed prior to automated nanoESI-MS analysis with a Q-TOF mass spectrometer. Dissociation constants for each complex were calculated from the sum of ion peak areas of free and complexed proteins during the titration and competition experiments. The measured Kd values for the RNase A-CMP and Cel6A D117Acd-G3 complexes were found to be in excellent agreement with the available published values obtained by standard spectroscopic titration techniques. To our knowledge, this is the first report of using an ESI-MS approach to study the interactions between a cellulase and oligosaccharides. The results provide new insights for understanding the nature of cellulase-cellulose interactions.

Reaction of human UMP-CMP kinase with natural and analog substrates

UMP-CMP kinase catalyses an important step in the phosphorylation of UTP, CTP and dCTP. It is also involved in the necessary phosphorylation by cellular kinases of nucleoside analogs used in antiviral therapies. The reactivity of human UMP-CMP kinase towards natural substrates and nucleotide analogs was reexamined. The expression of the recombinant enzyme and conditions for stability of the enzyme were improved. Substrate inhibition was observed for UMP and CMP at concentrations higher than 0.2 mm, but not for dCMP. The antiviral analog l-3TCMP was found to be an efficient substrate phosphorylated into l-3TCDP by human UMP-CMP kinase. However, in the reverse reaction, the enzyme did not catalyse the addition of the third phosphate to l-3TCDP, which was rather an inhibitor. By molecular modelling, l-3TCMP was built in the active site of the enzyme from Dictyostelium. Human UMP-CMP kinase has a relaxed enantiospecificity for the nucleoside monophosphate acceptor site, but it is restricted to d-nucleotides at the donor site.

Structure and catalytic mechanism of 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate (MECDP) synthase, an enzyme in the non-mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid synthesis

Precursors for isoprenoid synthesis are essential in all organisms. These compounds are synthesized by one of two known routes: the well characterized mevalonate pathway or a recently discovered non-mevalonate route which is used in many bacteria and human pathogens. Since the second pathway is both vital and unlike any found in humans, enzymes catalysing reactions along this synthetic route are possible drug targets. The structure of one such enzyme from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus thermophilus has been solved to high resolution in the presence of substrate and with a substrate analogue. Enzyme co-crystallized with substrate shows only one product, cytosine monophosphate (CMP), in the active site. At the high resolution of the refinement (1.6 A) the positions and coordination of the magnesium ions in the active site are clearly seen.

Measurement of genome wide DNA methylation by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography

A method to determine the extent of cytosine methylation in DNA is described. The technique involves the enzymatic hydrolysis of DNA to its deoxyribonucleotide components and subsequent separation and quantification of the nucleotides by isocratic reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The system gives highly reproducible results and, under suitable conditions, is capable of measuring 5-methylcytosine levels in as little as 1 microg of DNA.

Toward the design of ribonuclease (RNase) inhibitors: ion effects on the thermodynamics of binding of 2'-CMP to RNase A

Ribonucleases (RNases) possess a variety of biological activities and, under certain conditions, are deleterious. Hence, design of selective inhibitors has been suggested as a strategy for treating RNase-related disorders. In the present study, isothermal titration calorimetry was used to measure ion effects on binding thermodynamics of the RNase A competitive inhibitor 2'-CMP as a representative system. The reaction cell (37 degrees C) contained dialyzed RNase A (0.04-0.05 mM) in buffered solution (pH 5.5) of 50 mM Na(+), K(+), Ca(2+), or Mg(2+) acetate, verified spectrophotometrically. Thirty-five sequential injections (4 microl each, 3 min apart) were made of 2'-CMP (1.2 mM) in ion-matching buffer. The data were corrected for heat of dilution. There was a 1:1 interaction in each case. The estimated parameters (+/-S.D.) were: K(d) = 4.84 +/- 0.29 microM (Na(+)); 5.62 +/- 0.98 microM (K(+)); 24.44 +/- 6.96 microM (Ca(2+)); 28.74 +/- 0.43 microM (Mg(2+)); DeltaG(o) = -7.541 +/- 0.037 kcal/mol (Na(+)); -7.458 +/- 1.03 kcal/mol (K(+)); -6.574 +/- 0.173 kcal/mol (Ca(2+)); -6.442 +/- 0.009 kcal/mol (Mg(2+)); DeltaH(o) = -22.357 +/- 1.189 kcal/mol (Na(+)); -21.917 +/- 0.891 kcal/mol (K(+)); -20.223 +/- 1.503 kcal/mol (Ca(2+)); -26.570 +/- 1.579 kcal/mol (Mg(2+)); and DeltaS(o) = -0.048 +/- 0.004 kcal/mol-K (Na(+)); -0.047 +/- 0.003 kcal/mol-K (K(+)); -0.044 +/- 0.005 kcal/mol-K (Ca(2+)); -0.065 +/- 0.005 kcal/mol-K (Mg(2+)). Thus, all reactions were enthalpy-driven. Despite a 5-fold difference in K(d) between mono- and divalent ions, the ratio of ion hydration DeltaG(o) to K(d) was constant. These data should be useful for molecular modeling and suggest that inhibitor activity will be a function of cellular conditions (normal or pathological).

Nuclear localization signal of murine CMP-Neu5Ac synthetase includes residues required for both nuclear targeting and enzymatic activity

5-N-Acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac) is the major sialic acid derivative found in animal cells. As a component of cell surface glycoconjugates, Neu5Ac is pivotal to numerous cellular recognition and communication processes including host-parasite interactions. A prerequisite for the synthesis of sialylated glycoconjugates is the activation of Neu5Ac to cytidine-monophosphate N-acetylneuraminic acid (CMP-Neu5Ac). The reaction is catalyzed by CMP-Neu5Ac-synthetase (syn), which, for unknown reasons, resides in the nucleus. Sequence analysis of the cloned murine CMP-Neu5Ac synthetase identified three clusters of basic amino acids (BC1-BC3) that might function as nuclear localization signals (NLS). In the present study chimeric protein and mutagenesis strategies were used to show that BC1 and BC2 are active NLS sequences when attached to the green fluorescent protein (enhanced GFP), but only BC2 is necessary and sufficient to mediate the nuclear import of CMP-Neu5Ac synthetase. Site-directed mutations identified the residues K(198)RXR to be essential for nuclear transport and Arg(202) to be necessary to complete the transport process. Cytoplasmic forms of CMP-Neu5Ac synthetase generated by single site mutations in BC2 demonstrated that (i) enzyme activity is independent of nuclear localization, and (ii) Arg(199) and Arg(202) are involved in both nuclear transport and synthetase activity. Comparison of all known and predicted CMP-sialic acid synthetases reveals Arg(202) and Gln(203) as highly conserved in evolution and critically important for optimal synthetase activity but not for nuclear localization. Combined, the data demonstrate that nuclear transport and enzyme activity are independent functions that share some common amino acid requirements in CMP-Neu5Ac synthetase.

Determination of RNase A/2'-cytidine monophosphate binding affinity and enthalpy by a global fit of thermal unfolding curves

A spectropolarimeter was used to measure the thermal response curves of RNase A in the presence and absence of the ligand cytidine 2'-monophosphate. A coupled equilibrium model was used to describe the dissociation of the protein-ligand complex (NL<==>N + L) and the thermal unfolding of the free protein (N<==>U). The unfolding curves of the protein in the presence of several different concentrations of ligand were fit to this coupled equilibrium model using global linkage analysis. The best-fitted values for the thermal unfolding of the apo-protein were 60.9 +/- 0.2 degrees C (T(m)) and 105.5 +/- 1.4 kcal/mol (DeltaH), while the fitted values for the dissociation of the protein-ligand complex were 1.6 +/- 0.4 microM (K(D)) and 18.7 +/- 1.0 kcal mol(-1) (DeltaH(L)). These values were in excellent agreement with values obtained by other methods. The sensitivity of the data fitting was compared using linear or quadratic temperature dependence for the response curves of the free ligand (L), native apo-protein (N), native ligand-bound protein (NL), and unfolded apo-protein (U). There was no significant improvement in the precision of the fitted data when the temperature-dependent response for each species (N, L, NL, and U) was expressed as quadratic functions of temperature.

Characterization of human UMP/CMP kinase and its phosphorylation of D- and L-form deoxycytidine analogue monophosphates

Pyrimidine nucleoside monophosphate kinase [UMP/CMP kinase (UMP/CMPK);EC 2.7.4.14] plays a crucial role in the formation of UDP, CDP, and dCDP, which are required for cellular nucleic acid synthesis. Several cytidine and deoxycytidine analogues are important anticancer and antiviral drugs. These drugs require stepwise phosphorylation to their triphosphate forms to exert their therapeutic effects. The role of UMP/CMPK for the phosphorylation of nucleoside analogues has been indicated. Thus, we cloned the human UMP/CMPK gene, expressed it in Escherichia coli, and purified it to homogeneity. Its kinetic properties were determined. UMP and CMP proved to be far better substrates than dCMP. UMP/CMPK used all of the nucleoside triphosphates as phosphate donors, with ATP and dATP being the best donors and CTP being the poorest. Furthermore, UMP/CMPK was able to phosphorylate all of the deoxycytidine analogue monophosphates that we tested. The relative efficiency was as follows: arabinofuranosyl-CMP > dCMP > beta-L-2',3'-dideoxy-3'-thia-CMP > Gemcitabine monophosphate > beta-D-2',3'-dideoxy-CMP; beta-L-2',3'-dideoxy-2',3'-didehydro-5-fluoro-CMP; beta-L-2',3'-dideoxy-5-fluoro-3'-thia-CMP > beta-L-2',3'-dideoxy-CMP > beta-L-dioxolane-CMP. By comparing the relative V(max)/K(m) values of D- and L-form dideoxy-CMP, we showed that this kinase lacked stereoselectivity. Reducing agents, such as DTT, 2-mercaptoethanol, and thioredoxin, were able to activate this enzyme, suggesting that its activity may be regulated by redox potential in vivo. UMP/CMPK localized predominantly to the cytoplasm. In addition, 196-amino acid UMP/CMPK was the actual form of UMP/CMPK, rather than the 228-amino acid form as suggested before.

Structure of 2C-methyl-d-erythritol-2,4-cyclodiphosphate synthase involved in mevalonate-independent biosynthesis of isoprenoids

Isoprenoids are biosynthesized from isopentenyl diphosphate and the isomeric dimethylallyl diphosphate via the mevalonate pathway or a mevalonate-independent pathway that was identified during the last decade. The non-mevalonate pathway is present in many bacteria, some algae and in certain protozoa such as the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum and in the plastids of higher plants, but not in mammals and archaea. Therefore, these enzymes have been recognised as promising drug targets. We report the crystal structure of Escherichia coli 2C- methyl-d-erythritol-2,4-cyclodiphosphate synthase (IspF), which converts 4-diphosphocytidyl-2C-methyl-d-erythritol 2-phosphate into 2C-methyl-d-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate and CMP in a Mg-dependent reaction. The protein forms homotrimers that tightly bind one zinc ion per subunit at the active site, which helps to position the substrate for direct attack of the 2-phosphate group on the beta-phosphate.

Sugar specificity of bacterial CMP kinases as revealed by crystal structures and mutagenesis of Escherichia coli enzyme

Bacterial cytidine monophosphate (CMP) kinases are characterised by an insert enlarging their CMP binding domain, and by their particular substrate specificity. Thus, both CMP and 2'-deoxy-CMP (dCMP) are good phosphate acceptors for the CMP kinase from Escherichia coli (E. coli CMPK), whereas eukaryotic UMP/CMP kinases phosphorylate the deoxynucleotides with very low efficiency. Four crystal structures of E. coli CMPK complexed with nucleoside monophosphates differing in their sugar moiety were solved. Both structures with CMP or dCMP show interactions with the pentose that were not described so far. These interactions are lost with the poorer substrates AraCMP and 2',3'-dideoxy-CMP. Comparison of all four structures shows that the pentose hydroxyls are involved in ligand-induced movements of enzyme domains. It also gives a structural basis of the mechanism by which either ribose or deoxyribose can be accommodated. In parallel, for the four nucleotides the kinetic results of the wild-type enzyme and of three structure-based variants are presented. The phosphorylation rate is significantly decreased when either of the two pentose interacting residues is mutated. One of these is an arginine that is highly conserved in all known nucleoside monophosphate kinases. In contrast, the other residue, Asp185, is typical of bacterial CMP kinases. It interacts with Ser101, the only residue conserved in all CMP binding domain inserts. Mutating Ser101 reduces CMP phosphorylation only moderately, but dramatically reduces dCMP phosphorylation. This is the first experimental evidence of a catalytic role involving the characteristic insert of bacterial CMP kinases. Furthermore, this role concerns only dCMP phosphorylation, a feature of this family of enzymes.

Reversible substrate-induced domain motions in ribonuclease A

Despite the increasing number of successful determinations of complex protein structures the understanding of their dynamics properties is still rather limited. Using X-ray crystallography, we demonstrate that ribonuclease A (RNase A) undergoes significant domain motions upon ligand binding. In particular, when cytidine 2'-monophosphate binds to RNase A, the structure of the enzyme becomes more compact. Interestingly, our data also show that these structural alterations are fully reversible in the crystal state. These findings provide structural bases for the dynamic behavior of RNase A in the binding of the substrate shown by Petsko and coworkers (Rasmussen et al. Nature 1992;357:423-424). These subtle domain motions may assume functional relevance for more complex system and may play a significant role in the cooperativity of oligomeric enzymes.

Characterization of human UMP-CMP kinase enzymatic activity and 5' untranslated region

We have cloned a cDNA for human UMP-CMP kinase from a macrophage cDNA library. Sequence analysis showed that this cDNA is derived from the same gene as a previously reported EST-derived cDNA. Here we show that a conspicuous difference between these two clones, 73 additional 5' nucleotides in the EST clone, including a putative translational start site, is not functionally significant. This work shows that the additional 5'sequence in the EST clone was unnecessary for enzymatic activity and nonfunctional in the initiation of translation. Specifically, we found that protein expressed by both the macrophage-derived cDNA and the extended cDNA had the same relative molecular mass, consistent with use of an ATG internal to the macrophage-derived clone as the functional start site. In addition, this work more precisely defines the catalytic activity of UMP-CMP kinase. Here, we show a 3-fold greater substrate preference for CMP relative to UMP, identify ATP and UTP as the preferred phosphate donors for the reaction, and demonstrate that the reaction is Mg2+-dependent. In addition, investigation of UMP-CMP-kinase expression revealed two mRNA products in immune tissues and cancer cell lines. The smaller RNA product was previously undescribed.