The tortuous road to the adoption of katal for the expression of catalytic activity by the General Conference on Weights and Measures

BACKGROUND

The "unit" for "enzymic activity" (U = 1 micromol/min) was recommended by the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUB) in 1961 and is widely used in medical laboratory reports. The general trend in metrology, however, is toward global standardization through defining units coherent with the International System of Units (SI).

APPROACH

Several proposals were advanced from the IFCC, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, and IUB regarding the definition for enzymic activity as well as the terms for kind-of-quantity, units, symbol, and dimension. In 1977, international agreement was reached between these bodies and WHO that "catalytic activity" (z), of a catalyst in a given system is defined by the rate of conversion in a measuring system (in mol/s) and expressed in "katal" (symbol, kat; equal to 1 mol/s). The katal is invariant of the measurement procedure, but the numerical quantity value is not. Gaining support for the katal from the final arbiter, the General Conference on Weights and Measures, was slow, but Resolution 12 of 1999 adopted the katal (symbol, kat) as a special name and symbol for the SI-derived unit, mol/s, used in measuring catalytic activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Laboratory results for amounts of catalysts, including enzymes, measured by their catalytic activity can now officially be expressed in katals and are traceable to the SI provided that the specified indicator reaction reflects first-order kinetics. The conversion from "unit" is: 1 U = 16.667 x 10(-9) kat. Further derived quantities have coherent units such as kat/L, kat/kg, and kat/kat = 1.

Women and the history of the neurosciences

Since the closing decades of the nineteenth century, women have been contributing in a significant way to the neurosciences. This article looks at the contributions of some of the leading women pioneers in this field. It also deals with women who have written on the history of the neurosciences and the representation of women in the International Society for the History of the Neurosciences, the largest neuroscience history organization. Trends suggest that books and articles from and about women in the history of the neurosciences will increase markedly in the future.

Women in neuroscience (WIN): the first twenty years

Women in Neuroscience (WIN) is an international organization whose major goal is to promote the professional advancement of women neuroscientists. To this end, WIN facilitates contacts and communication among women working in neuroscience, and organizes appropriate activities at the annual Society for Neuroscience (SfN) meeting. WIN was created in 1980, when despite major changes and advances in 'equal opportunities', women were still not achieving a proportionate level of success in the subdiscipline of neurosciences. In 1980, women made up 40 to 50% of entering classes in medical schools or graduate programs, but often comprised only 5 to 15% of leadership in respective organizations. Although there had been women elected to serve as SfN presidents, council, and committee members, women were under-represented in other positions of the Society, such as symposium and session chairs. There was an even lesser degree of representation in leadership positions at universities and medical schools in terms of full professorships, chairs, and program directors, as well as on editorial boards, advisory boards, and councils. Over the years, WIN has worked with success toward increasing the participation of women in neuroscience.

History of modern genetics in Germany

The history of modern genetics in Germany during the 20th century is a story of missed chances. In the USA the genetic revolution opened a fascinating new field for ambitious scientists and created a rapidly growing new industry. Meanwhile Germany stood aside, combating with political and social restrictions. Promising young scientists who wanted to work in the field left Germany for the US, and big companies moved their facilities out of the country. Up until the middle of the 1990s molecular biology in Germany remained a "sleeping beauty" even though many brilliant scientists did their jobs very well. Then a somewhat funny idea changed everything: the German minister for education and science proclaimed the BioRegio contest in order to award the most powerful biotechnology region in Germany concerning academia and especially industry. Since then Germany's biotechnology industry has grown constantly and rapidly due to the foundation of a number of small biotech companies; big companies have returned their interests and their investments to Germany, paralleled by an improvement in academic research because of more funding and better support especially for younger scientists. In respect to biotechnology and molecular biology, Germany is still a developing country, but it has started to move and to take its chances in an exciting global competition.

[Transition of Japanese societies related to clinical chemistry in the Mid-Showa period (1955-1980) (Part 2)]

The transitions of research activities in the field of clinical chemistry in the Japan Society for Analytical Chemistry, in the Japan Pharmaceutical Association, and the other three related research groups since 1966 were briefly reviewed.

The American Psychological Association's response to Brown v. Board of Education. The case of Kenneth B. Clark

In 1954, in Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court struck down the "separate but equal" doctrine of the Plessy v. Ferguson decision (1896) that was the foundation of school segregation in 17 states and the District of Columbia. Brown is arguably the most important Supreme Court decision of the 20th century in terms of its influence on American history. Moreover, it has a special significance for psychology because it marked the first time that psychological research was cited in a Supreme Court decision and because social science data were seen as paramount in the Court's decision to end school segregation. This article describes psychologist Kenneth B. Clark's role in that case and the response of the American Psychological Association to scientific psychology's moment in a great spotlight.

The practice of forensic psychology. A look toward the future in light of the past

In a 1987 American Psychologist article, Tom Grisso summarized the state of forensic psychological assessment, noted its limitations and potential, and offered suggestions for researchers and practitioners interested in contributing to its future. Since that time, there have been many important developments in the field of forensic psychology, as well as in clinical psychology more generally, some of which were anticipated and recommended by Grisso, and some of which were not. Forensic psychology is now at a crossroads, and the specialty must make an effort to respond to current challenges if it is to aid in the administration of justice by assisting legal decision makers. The need to distinguish between and identify levels of forensic knowledge and practice, establish guidelines for practice, educate legal consumers, and devote more attention to treatment issues in forensic contexts is highlighted.

The legacy of Kenneth B. Clark to the APA. The Board of Social and Ethical Responsibility for Psychology

The American Psychological Association faced many challenges beginning around 1965, including the challenge to make psychology more inclusive of traditionally underrepresented groups. The larger context of social unrest and public and political focus on social problems framed these challenges. This article describes the events that led to the establishment of the Board of Social and Ethical Responsibility for Psychology in 1972 and highlights the role of Kenneth B. Clark in those events.

The Ergonomics Society--the Society Lectures 1999: the Ergonomics Society: 50 years of growth

Developments in the Society are outlined since the early history was described by Edholm and Murrell. Major changes in the Society's operation and the context in which these changes took place are given. The changes in research directions, growth in educational facilities for professional education and the ever widening areas for the application of ergonomics are discussed. The consequences of these developments for the expansion of a recognition of the contribution of ergonomics, and the position of professionals in the international scene are touched upon.