101
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Churcher TS, Sinden RE, Edwards NJ, Poulton ID, Rampling TW, Brock PM, Griffin JT, Upton LM, Zakutansky SE, Sala KA, Angrisano F, Hill AVS, Blagborough AM. Probability of Transmission of Malaria from Mosquito to Human Is Regulated by Mosquito Parasite Density in Naïve and Vaccinated Hosts. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006108. [PMID: 28081253 PMCID: PMC5230737 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 12/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Over a century since Ronald Ross discovered that malaria is caused by the bite of an infectious mosquito it is still unclear how the number of parasites injected influences disease transmission. Currently it is assumed that all mosquitoes with salivary gland sporozoites are equally infectious irrespective of the number of parasites they harbour, though this has never been rigorously tested. Here we analyse >1000 experimental infections of humans and mice and demonstrate a dose-dependency for probability of infection and the length of the host pre-patent period. Mosquitoes with a higher numbers of sporozoites in their salivary glands following blood-feeding are more likely to have caused infection (and have done so quicker) than mosquitoes with fewer parasites. A similar dose response for the probability of infection was seen for humans given a pre-erythrocytic vaccine candidate targeting circumsporozoite protein (CSP), and in mice with and without transfusion of anti-CSP antibodies. These interventions prevented infection more efficiently from bites made by mosquitoes with fewer parasites. The importance of parasite number has widespread implications across malariology, ranging from our basic understanding of the parasite, how vaccines are evaluated and the way in which transmission should be measured in the field. It also provides direct evidence for why the only registered malaria vaccine RTS,S was partially effective in recent clinical trials. Malaria is transmitted to humans by the bite of an infectious mosquito though it is unclear whether a mosquito with a high number of parasites is more infectious than one with only a few. Here we show that the greater the number of parasites within the salivary gland of the mosquito following blood-feeding the more likely it is to have transmitted the disease. A clear dose-response is seen with highly infected mosquitoes being more likely to have caused infection (and to have done so quicker) than lightly infected mosquitoes. This suggesting that mosquito-based methods for measuring transmission in the field need to be refined as they currently only consider whether a mosquito is infected or not (and not how heavily infected the mosquito is). Novel transmission reducing drugs and vaccines are tested by experimentally infecting people using infectious mosquitoes. This work indicates that it is important to further standardise infectious dose in malaria experimental infections to enable the efficacy of new interventions to be accurately compared. The work also provides direct evidence to suggest that the world’s first licenced malaria vaccine may be partially effective because it fails to provide protection against highly infected mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas S. Churcher
- MRC Centre for Outbreak Analysis and Modelling, Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Robert E. Sinden
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, United Kingdom
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Nick J. Edwards
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Ian D. Poulton
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas W. Rampling
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick M. Brock
- MRC Centre for Outbreak Analysis and Modelling, Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Jamie T. Griffin
- MRC Centre for Outbreak Analysis and Modelling, Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Leanna M. Upton
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sara E. Zakutansky
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, United Kingdom
| | - Katarzyna A. Sala
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona Angrisano
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, United Kingdom
| | - Adrian V. S. Hill
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew M. Blagborough
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, United Kingdom
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102
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Bone AE, Morgan M, Maddocks M, Sleeman KE, Wright J, Taherzadeh S, Ellis-Smith C, Higginson IJ, Evans CJ. Developing a model of short-term integrated palliative and supportive care for frail older people in community settings: perspectives of older people, carers and other key stakeholders. Age Ageing 2016; 45:863-873. [PMID: 27586857 PMCID: PMC5105822 DOI: 10.1093/ageing/afw124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND understanding how best to provide palliative care for frail older people with non-malignant conditions is an international priority. We aimed to develop a community-based episodic model of short-term integrated palliative and supportive care (SIPS) based on the views of service users and other key stakeholders in the United Kingdom. METHOD transparent expert consultations with health professionals, voluntary sector and carer representatives including a consensus survey; and focus groups with older people and carers were used to generate recommendations for the SIPS model. Discussions focused on three key components of the model: potential benefit of SIPS, timing of delivery and processes of integrated working between specialist palliative care and generalist practitioners. Content and descriptive analysis was employed and findings were integrated across the data sources. FINDINGS we conducted two expert consultations (n = 63), a consensus survey (n = 42) and three focus groups (n = 17). Potential benefits of SIPS included holistic assessment, opportunity for end of life discussion, symptom management and carer reassurance. Older people and carers advocated early access to SIPS, while other stakeholders proposed delivery based on complex symptom burden. A priority for integrated working was the assignment of a key worker to co-ordinate care, but the assignment criteria remain uncertain. INTERPRETATION key stakeholders agree that a model of SIPS for frail older people with non-malignant conditions has potential benefits within community settings, but differ in opinion on the optimal timing and indications for this service. Our findings highlight the importance of consulting all key stakeholders in model development prior to feasibility evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna E. Bone
- Department of Palliative Care, Policy and Rehabilitation, Cicely Saunders Institute, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Myfanwy Morgan
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Matthew Maddocks
- Department of Palliative Care, Policy and Rehabilitation, Cicely Saunders Institute, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Katherine E. Sleeman
- Department of Palliative Care, Policy and Rehabilitation, Cicely Saunders Institute, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Juliet Wright
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Brighton, UK
| | | | - Clare Ellis-Smith
- Department of Palliative Care, Policy and Rehabilitation, Cicely Saunders Institute, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Irene J. Higginson
- Department of Palliative Care, Policy and Rehabilitation, Cicely Saunders Institute, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Catherine J. Evans
- Department of Palliative Care, Policy and Rehabilitation, Cicely Saunders Institute, King's College London, London, UK
- Sussex Community NHS Trust, Brighton and Hove, UK
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103
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Fiedler M, Graeb M, Mieszczanek J, Rutherford TJ, Johnson CM, Bienz M. An ancient Pygo-dependent Wnt enhanceosome integrated by Chip/LDB-SSDP. eLife 2015; 4:e09073. [PMID: 26312500 PMCID: PMC4571689 DOI: 10.7554/elife.09073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
TCF/LEF factors are ancient context-dependent enhancer-binding proteins that are activated by β-catenin following Wnt signaling. They control embryonic development and adult stem cell compartments, and their dysregulation often causes cancer. β-catenin-dependent transcription relies on the NPF motif of Pygo proteins. Here, we use a proteomics approach to discover the Chip/LDB-SSDP (ChiLS) complex as the ligand specifically binding to NPF. ChiLS also recognizes NPF motifs in other nuclear factors including Runt/RUNX2 and Drosophila ARID1, and binds to Groucho/TLE. Studies of Wnt-responsive dTCF enhancers in the Drosophila embryonic midgut indicate how these factors interact to form the Wnt enhanceosome, primed for Wnt responses by Pygo. Together with previous evidence, our study indicates that ChiLS confers context-dependence on TCF/LEF by integrating multiple inputs from lineage and signal-responsive factors, including enhanceosome switch-off by Notch. Its pivotal function in embryos and stem cells explain why its integrity is crucial in the avoidance of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Fiedler
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Graeb
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Juliusz Mieszczanek
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Trevor J Rutherford
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher M Johnson
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Mariann Bienz
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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104
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Connor TR, Barker CR, Baker KS, Weill FX, Talukder KA, Smith AM, Baker S, Gouali M, Pham Thanh D, Jahan Azmi I, Dias da Silveira W, Semmler T, Wieler LH, Jenkins C, Cravioto A, Faruque SM, Parkhill J, Wook Kim D, Keddy KH, Thomson NR. Species-wide whole genome sequencing reveals historical global spread and recent local persistence in Shigella flexneri. eLife 2015; 4:e07335. [PMID: 26238191 PMCID: PMC4522646 DOI: 10.7554/elife.07335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 07/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Shigella flexneri is the most common cause of bacterial dysentery in low-income countries. Despite this, S. flexneri remains largely unexplored from a genomic standpoint and is still described using a vocabulary based on serotyping reactions developed over half-a-century ago. Here we combine whole genome sequencing with geographical and temporal data to examine the natural history of the species. Our analysis subdivides S. flexneri into seven phylogenetic groups (PGs); each containing two-or-more serotypes and characterised by distinct virulence gene complement and geographic range. Within the S. flexneri PGs we identify geographically restricted sub-lineages that appear to have persistently colonised regions for many decades to over 100 years. Although we found abundant evidence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) determinant acquisition, our dataset shows no evidence of subsequent intercontinental spread of antimicrobial resistant strains. The pattern of colonisation and AMR gene acquisition suggest that S. flexneri has a distinct life-cycle involving local persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas R Connor
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- Pathogen Genomics, Wellcome Trust Sanger Centre, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Kate S Baker
- Pathogen Genomics, Wellcome Trust Sanger Centre, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Kaisar Ali Talukder
- Centre for Food and Water Borne Diseases, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Anthony M Smith
- Centre for Enteric Diseases, National Institute for Communicable Diseases and Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Stephen Baker
- The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Malika Gouali
- Unité des Bactéries Pathogènes Entériques, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Duy Pham Thanh
- The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ishrat Jahan Azmi
- Centre for Food and Water Borne Diseases, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Wanderley Dias da Silveira
- Department of Genetics, Evolution, and Bioagents, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Torsten Semmler
- Centre for Infection Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Epizootics, Freie University, Berlin, Germany
- Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lothar H Wieler
- Centre for Infection Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Epizootics, Freie University, Berlin, Germany
- Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Claire Jenkins
- Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, Public Health England, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Shah M Faruque
- Centre for Food and Water Borne Diseases, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Julian Parkhill
- Pathogen Genomics, Wellcome Trust Sanger Centre, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Dong Wook Kim
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, Ansan, Republic of Korea
| | - Karen H Keddy
- Centre for Enteric Diseases, National Institute for Communicable Diseases and Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Nicholas R Thomson
- Pathogen Genomics, Wellcome Trust Sanger Centre, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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105
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Johnen VM, Neubert FX, Buch ER, Verhagen L, O'Reilly JX, Mars RB, Rushworth MFS. Causal manipulation of functional connectivity in a specific neural pathway during behaviour and at rest. eLife 2015; 4:e04585. [PMID: 25664941 PMCID: PMC4353194 DOI: 10.7554/elife.04585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 02/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Correlations in brain activity between two areas (functional connectivity) have been shown to relate to their underlying structural connections. We examine the possibility that functional connectivity also reflects short-term changes in synaptic efficacy. We demonstrate that paired transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) near ventral premotor cortex (PMv) and primary motor cortex (M1) with a short 8-ms inter-pulse interval evoking synchronous pre- and post-synaptic activity and which strengthens interregional connectivity between the two areas in a pattern consistent with Hebbian plasticity, leads to increased functional connectivity between PMv and M1 as measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Moreover, we show that strengthening connectivity between these nodes has effects on a wider network of areas, such as decreasing coupling in a parallel motor programming stream. A control experiment revealed that identical TMS pulses at identical frequencies caused no change in fMRI-measured functional connectivity when the inter-pulse-interval was too long for Hebbian-like plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa M Johnen
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Franz-Xaver Neubert
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Ethan R Buch
- Human Cortical Physiology and Neurorehabilitation Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States
- Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, Bethesda, United States
| | - Lennart Verhagen
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Jill X O'Reilly
- Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Rogier B Mars
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew F S Rushworth
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
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106
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Chalei V, Sansom SN, Kong L, Lee S, Montiel JF, Vance KW, Ponting CP. The long non-coding RNA Dali is an epigenetic regulator of neural differentiation. eLife 2014; 3:e04530. [PMID: 25415054 PMCID: PMC4383022 DOI: 10.7554/elife.04530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 11/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Many intergenic long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) loci regulate the expression of adjacent protein coding genes. Less clear is whether intergenic lncRNAs commonly regulate transcription by modulating chromatin at genomically distant loci. Here, we report both genomically local and distal RNA-dependent roles of Dali, a conserved central nervous system expressed intergenic lncRNA. Dali is transcribed downstream of the Pou3f3 transcription factor gene and its depletion disrupts the differentiation of neuroblastoma cells. Locally, Dali transcript regulates transcription of the Pou3f3 locus. Distally, it preferentially targets active promoters and regulates expression of neural differentiation genes, in part through physical association with the POU3F3 protein. Dali interacts with the DNMT1 DNA methyltransferase in mouse and human and regulates DNA methylation status of CpG island-associated promoters in trans. These results demonstrate, for the first time, that a single intergenic lncRNA controls the activity and methylation of genomically distal regulatory elements to modulate large-scale transcriptional programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislava Chalei
- MRC Functional Genomics
Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics,
University of Oxford, Oxford, United
Kingdom
| | - Stephen N Sansom
- MRC Functional Genomics
Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics,
University of Oxford, Oxford, United
Kingdom
- Computational Genomics
Analysis and Training Programme, University of
Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Lesheng Kong
- MRC Functional Genomics
Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics,
University of Oxford, Oxford, United
Kingdom
| | - Sheena Lee
- Department of
Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of
Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Juan F Montiel
- MRC Functional Genomics
Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics,
University of Oxford, Oxford, United
Kingdom
| | - Keith W Vance
- MRC Functional Genomics
Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics,
University of Oxford, Oxford, United
Kingdom
| | - Chris P Ponting
- MRC Functional Genomics
Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics,
University of Oxford, Oxford, United
Kingdom
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107
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Ferry Q, Steinberg J, Webber C, FitzPatrick DR, Ponting CP, Zisserman A, Nellåker C. Diagnostically relevant facial gestalt information from ordinary photos. eLife 2014; 3:e02020. [PMID: 24963138 PMCID: PMC4067075 DOI: 10.7554/elife.02020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2013] [Accepted: 05/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Craniofacial characteristics are highly informative for clinical geneticists when diagnosing genetic diseases. As a first step towards the high-throughput diagnosis of ultra-rare developmental diseases we introduce an automatic approach that implements recent developments in computer vision. This algorithm extracts phenotypic information from ordinary non-clinical photographs and, using machine learning, models human facial dysmorphisms in a multidimensional 'Clinical Face Phenotype Space'. The space locates patients in the context of known syndromes and thereby facilitates the generation of diagnostic hypotheses. Consequently, the approach will aid clinicians by greatly narrowing (by 27.6-fold) the search space of potential diagnoses for patients with suspected developmental disorders. Furthermore, this Clinical Face Phenotype Space allows the clustering of patients by phenotype even when no known syndrome diagnosis exists, thereby aiding disease identification. We demonstrate that this approach provides a novel method for inferring causative genetic variants from clinical sequencing data through functional genetic pathway comparisons.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.02020.001.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Ferry
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Julia Steinberg
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom The Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Caleb Webber
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - David R FitzPatrick
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Chris P Ponting
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Zisserman
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Christoffer Nellåker
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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