Understanding water activity change in oil with temperature

Our recent studies and several publications suggest that the low water activity (a_w) of oil in thermal processing might be a major contributing factor towards the increased thermal resistance of bacteria in oils. In this study, we developed a reliable method to measure the water activity of oil by measuring the equilibrium relative humidity in a small headspace. Using this method, water activity of peanut oil was found to decrease exponentially with increasing temperature. A model derived from excess Gibbs free energy was fitted to the observations with an R² = 99.6% and RMSE = 0.01 (a_w). Our results suggest that the sharply reduced water activity of oil resulting from a rise in temperature could cause desiccation of bacteria. This is a possible explanation for the protective effect of oil in thermal processing.

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A method is presented for the measurement of water activity of oil at temperatures up to 85 °C.

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The water activity of peanut oil is found to decrease exponentially as the temperature increases.

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A model is derived to predict the water activity of oil as a function of temperature.

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Desiccation may happen to bacteria in oil during thermal processing, which explains the protective effect of oil.

Quantitative and kinetic analyses of peanut allergens as affected by food processing

Peanuts contain four major allergens with differences in allergenic potency. Thermal processing can influence the allergenic properties of peanuts. Until now, a kinetic model has not been reported to assess the changes of soluble allergen (extracted from processed peanuts) content as affected by various thermal processing methods. Our objective is to characterize the reaction kinetics of the thermal processing methods, including wet processing (boiling with/without high-pressure, steaming with/without high-pressure), deep-frying and dry processing (microwaving and roasting) using five time intervals. The relationships between processing time and extractable major allergen content could be explained by a simple linear regression kinetic model (except high-pressure steaming). Among all the methods with optimal processing point, frying for 6 min had a relatively lower IgE binding (linear epitopes) ratio, possibly due to the processing conditions, which caused break down, cross-linking and aggregation of Ara h 2, and a relatively lower solubility.

Development of new strategy combining heat treatment and phage cocktail for post-contamination prevention

Heat treatment is an effective method for ensuring food safety and quality by controlling microbial contamination. However, food poisoning outbreaks have continuously occurred in heat-treated products due to improper thermal treatment and/or post-contamination of foodborne pathogens. This study proposes a novel strategy combining thermostable bacteriophages with thermal processing of food production plants to control foodborne pathogens and even bacterial contamination. Typically, bacteriophages' susceptibility to heat is a major challenge to their application with thermal processing, we isolated thermostable bacteriophages by a modified isolation method of applying heat to samples and characterized the thermostable bacteriophages. Furthermore, we optimized the bacteriophage cocktail components to expand the controllable host range and reduce the risk of bacteriophage resistance development. Finally, we verified this antibacterial strategy by combining heat treatment with thermostable bacteriophages in model systems, including milk and chicken breast. After the phage cocktail and heat treatment, we artificially contaminated the food products to mimic the post-contamination event. Surprisingly, the remaining bacteriophages that withstood heat treatment significantly reduced the number of post-contaminated Salmonella. Altogether, thermostable phages could be applied as complementary tools to control post-contamination after thermal processing of food products.

Effect of high pressure and thermal processing on quality changes of aloe vera-litchi mixed beverage (ALMB) during storage

The effect of high pressure processing (HPP) (600 MPa/15 min/56 °C) and thermal processing (TP) (95 °C/5 min) on the quality characteristics of aloe vera-litchi mixed beverage samples (ALMB) stored at 4, 15 and 25 °C were studied. The total color difference and browning index of ALMB samples increased with the storage period for both HPP and TP treated samples under all storage conditions. HPP of ALMB resulted in inactivation of pectinmethylesterase (PME), polyphenoloxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD) to 34, 65 and 62 %, respectively after immediate processing, whereas, TP treatment lead to 83, 79 and 78 %, respectively. The residual activity of all the studied enzymes decreased with storage period. The ascorbic acid loss of up to 22 % was observed after HPP treatment and up to 31 % for thermally treated samples. Minimal changes were noted for phenolics content after HPP as well as thermal processing. The natural microbiota present in samples was below the detection limit (1 log CFU/mL) throughout the storage period. The shelf life of HPP and TP treated samples stored at 4 °C was estimated to be 100 and 80 days, respectively, based on the sensory quality, ascorbic acid degradation and instrumental color difference.

Hydrophobicity and aggregation, but not glycation, are key determinants for uptake of thermally processed β-lactoglobulin by THP-1 macrophages

The aim of this study is to investigate the immunological relevance of modifications of food protein structure due to thermal processing. We investigated the uptake of β-lactoglobulin, treated with 3 different processing methods, by THP-1 macrophages: wet heating (60 °C in solution) and high- or low-temperature (130 °C or 50 °C, respectively) dry heating, combined with either of 8 types of saccharides or without saccharide. The processing method that was applied significantly affected the uptake of BLG by THP-1 macrophages, while the type of saccharide only had an influence in high-temperature dry heated samples. A set of physicochemical parameters of processed samples was determined, to determine the samples' molecular weight, hydrophobicity, amyloid-like structure, surface charge and secondary structure. Analysis of protein structure alterations indicated the uptake to be linked to the wet heating processing method and percentage of α-helix structure, amyloid-like structures, polymers, and hydrophobicity. We hypothesize that both amyloid-like structures and molecular weight were related to the increased hydrophobicity and therefore postulate that the exposure of hydrophobic regions is the leading physicochemical characteristic for the observed uptake of wet heated BLG samples by THP-1 macrophages. This work demonstrates how differential thermal processing of foods, through protein modification, can have an impact on its interaction with the immune system.

Physico-chemical characterization of protein fraction from stabilized wheat germ

Wheat germ shows the highest nutritional value of the kernel. It is highly susceptible to rancidity due to high content of unsaturated fat and presence of oxidative and hydrolytic enzymes. In order to improve its shelf life, it is necessary to inactivate these enzymes by a thermal process. In this work the functional properties and some characteristics of the protein fraction of treated wheat germ were evaluated. Sequential extraction of proteins showed loss of protein solubility and formation of aggregates after heating. DSC thermograms showed that wheat germ treated for 20 min at 175 °C reached a protein denaturation degree of ~ 77%. The stabilization process of wheat germ affected significantly some functional properties, such as foaming stability and protein solubility at pH 2 and pH 8. Nevertheless, heating did not affect the water holding, oil holding and foaming capacity of protein isolates.

Heat induced hydrolytic cleavage of the peptide bond in dietary peptides and proteins in food processing

We investigate the hypothesis that proteins and peptides are thermally degraded by hydrolytic bond cleavage of amide bonds, hence yielding shorter peptides as main degradation products. A series of fifteen pentapeptides with varying sequences was subjected to heating. Products were investigated by targeted UHPLC-ESI-tandem mass spectrometry and targeted analysis revealed formation of 2,5-diketopiperazines, di- and tri-peptides. Relative quantities of the thermal degradation were determined to show that hydrolytic cleavage is an important, however not dominant degradation pathway. A series of dietary intact proteins were subjected to heating and products formed analyzed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. For the majority of proteins larger degradation products with m/z values between 900 and 2500 could be observed, which we tentatively assign as hydrolytic cleavage products. For coffee globulin a series of eleven short peptides formed through thermal hydrolytic cleavage could be unambiguously identified formed through thermal proteolysis. The identical products could as well be identified in samples of roasted coffee clearly illustrating the occurrence and relevance of thermally induced proteolysis of proteins.

Toxicity, formation, contamination, determination and mitigation of acrylamide in thermally processed plant-based foods and herbal medicines: A review

Thermal processing is one of the important techniques for most of the plant-based food and herb medicines before consumption and application in order to meet the specific requirement. The plant and herbs are rich in amino acids and reducing sugars, and thermal processing may lead to Maillard reaction, resulting as a high risk of acrylamide pollution. Acrylamide, an organic pollutant that can be absorbed by the body through the respiratory tract, digestive tract, skin and mucous membranes, has potential carcinogenicity, neurological, genetic, reproductive and developmental toxicity. Therefore, it is significant to conduct pollution determination and risk assessment for quality assurance and security of medication. This review demonstrates state-of-the-art research of acrylamide focusing on the toxicity, formation, contamination, determination, and mitigation in taking food and herb medicine, to provide reference for scientific processing and ensure the security of consumers.

Comparative Effects of Thermal, High Hydrostatic Pressure, and UV-C Processing on the Quality, Nutritional Attributes, and Inactivation of Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Listeria Introduced into Tiger Nut Milk

HIGHLIGHTS

Thermal and nonthermal methods can support a 5-log CFU reduction of model bacteria introduced into tiger nut milk. Thermal treatment of tiger nut milk results in significant loss of protein, antioxidants, and quality properties. HHP or UV-C treatment of tiger nut milk retains quality and nutritional characteristics. HHP or UV-C are suitable for the pasteurization of tiger nut milk.

Effects of sprouting and fermentation on the formation of Maillard reaction products in different cereals heated as wholemeal

The concentration and composition of reducing sugars and free amino acids as Maillard reaction (MR) precursors change with grain sprouting. The formation of early and advanced glycation products, and α-dicarbonyl compounds as intermediates were monitored during heating native and sprouted wholemeals, as well as during heating of yeast and sourdough fermented native and sprouted wholemeals. Sprouting increased the concentration of all MR products because of an increase in reducing sugar concentrations. Although reducing sugars were lowered due to their consumption by yeasts, fermentation did not lower the furosine concentration. Sourdough fermentation unexpectedly increased furosine because the low pH caused glucose release from polysaccharides. Glyoxal, methylglyoxal and diacetyl were found to be formed as metabolites during yeast and sourdough fermentation. Another factor affecting the MR in sprouted/fermented wholemeals was revealed to be the increased amount of total free amino acids that compete with bound lysine to react with reducing sugars.

Influence of pressure cooking on antioxidant activity of wild (Ensete superbum) and commercial banana (Musa paradisiaca var. Monthan) unripe fruit and flower

Banana is a highly nutritious fruit crop consumed by many people's worldwide while endangered species are consumed by limited peoples and their health benefits are not explored. The unripe fruits and flowers of wild and commercial banana are consumed by peoples after cooking only. Hence, the present study was undertaken to evaluate and compare the effect of pressure cooking on antioxidant activity of wild and commercial banana species. The raw and processed samples were extracted with 70 % acetone. Except wild flower, thermal processing enhanced the content of phenolics, tannins, flavonoids, DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, hydroxyl and peroxidation activity than raw. Wild species presented higher phenolics, tannins, DPPH, ABTS and FRAP activity than commercial ones. Except few samples, wild species and commercial species exhibit similar activity in superoxide, hydroxyl and peroxidation activity. FRAP (r (2)  = 0.922; 0.977) and hydroxyl (r (2)  = 0.773; 0.744) activities were dependent on phenolics and tannin content whereas tannins may be responsible for DPPH scavenging activity (r (2)  = 0.745). Thermal processing enhanced the antioxidant activity might be due to the release of bound phenolics from cell wall and oxidation and polymerisation of compounds present in it. This wild species may be an alternative to commercial ones and will be valuable to consumers for protecting from chronic diseases.

Antioxidant compounds and their bioaccessibility in tomato fruit and puree obtained from a DETIOLATED-1 (DET-1) down-regulated genetically modified genotype

The economic value, the ease of cultivation and processing, and the well-known health-promoting properties of tomato fruit, make the tomato an important target for genetic manipulation to increase its nutritional content. A transgenic variety, down-regulated in the DETIOLATED-1 (DET-1) gene, has been studied in comparison with the parental line, for antioxidant levels in fresh and hot break fruit, as well as the bioaccessibility of antioxidants from puree. Differences in the concentrations of antioxidants between the wild-type and the genetically modified raw tomatoes were confirmed, but antioxidant levels were maintained to a greater extent in the GM puree than in the parent. The bioaccessibility of the compounds, tested using an in vitro digestion model, showed an increase in the genetically modified samples.

Comparison of freshly squeezed, Non-thermally and thermally processed orange juice based on traditional quality characters, untargeted metabolomics, and volatile overview

The NOVA food classification system, divides foods into four categories, namely unprocessed and minimally processed foods, processed culinary ingredients, processed foods, and ultra-processed foods. With the recently increasing pursuit of healthy diets, special attention to minimally processed foods has become crucial. According to NOVA, freshly squeezed, high pressure processing (HPP) and pasteurized orange juice are minimally processed foods. In this study, the differences in the quality and composition of these minimally processed juice are explored, as it was found that their traditional quality characteristics were too weak to illustrate their difference. However, based on untargeted metabolomics, two differential compounds were identified between freshly squeezed and HPP orange juice, in addition to 15 differential compounds between freshly squeezed and pasteurized orange juice. Moreover, all the pasteurized orange juice in this study was deemed to be out of the acceptance area of freshly squeezed and HPP orange juice in a data-driven soft independent modeling of class analogy (dd-SIMCA) model based on volatile overview. The results of this study provide data for clarifying the compositional differences between minimally processed juice for their further subclassification.

Degradation and detection of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis DNA and proteins in flour of three genetically modified rice events submitted to a set of thermal processes

This study aimed to investigate the degradation of three transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) genes (Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, and Cry1Ab/Ac) and the corresponding encoded Bt proteins in KMD1, KF6, and TT51-1 rice powder, respectively, following autoclaving, cooking, baking, or microwaving. Exogenous Bt genes were more stable than the endogenous sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS) gene, and short DNA fragments were detected more frequently than long DNA fragments in both the Bt and SPS genes. Autoclaving, cooking (boiling in water, 30 min), and baking (200 °C, 30 min) induced the most severe Bt protein degradation effects, and Cry1Ab protein was more stable than Cry1Ac and Cry1Ab/Ac protein, which was further confirmed by baking samples at 180 °C for different periods of time. Microwaving induced mild degradation of the Bt and SPS genes, and Bt proteins, whereas baking (180 °C, 15 min), cooking and autoclaving led to further degradation, and baking (200 °C, 30 min) induced the most severe degradation. The findings of the study indicated that degradation of the Bt genes and proteins somewhat correlated with the treatment intensity. Polymerase chain reaction, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and lateral flow tests were used to detect the corresponding transgenic components. Strategies for detecting transgenic ingredients in highly processed foods are discussed.

Investigating chemical changes during shelf-life of thermal and high-pressure high-temperature sterilised carrot purees: A 'fingerprinting kinetics' approach

This work investigates chemical changes during shelf-life of thermally and high pressure high temperature (HPHT) sterilised carrot purees using a 'fingerprinting kinetics' approach. Fingerprinting enabled selection of Strecker aldehydes, terpenes, phenylpropanoids, fatty acid derivatives and carotenoid degradation products as volatiles clearly changing during shelf-life. Next, kinetic modelling of these volatiles was performed to compare their reaction kinetics during storage in differently sterilised samples. Immediately after processing, the Strecker aldehydes were detected at higher levels in thermally sterilised samples. During storage, the compounds increased at a comparable rate in thermally and HPHT processed samples. In contrast, immediately after processing, most of the naturally occurring terpenes and phenylpropanoids were better preserved in HPHT treated samples. Nevertheless, by the end of storage, the concentration of these compounds decreased to almost the same level in both thermal and HPHT samples (with a higher degradation rate in HPHT samples).

Quantitative microbial spoilage risk assessment (QMSRA) of pasteurized strawberry purees by Aspergillus fischeri (teleomorph Neosartorya fischeri)

Aspergillus fischeri ascospores are known as potential spoilage microorganisms of pasteurized fruit products due to their high incidence in fruits, the ability to survive pasteurization and to grow in acidic conditions. This study aimed to develop a quantitative microbial spoilage risk assessment (QMSRA) model approach to estimate the spoilage risk of packaged strawberry purees due to A. fischeri under various scenarios regarding product formulation, processing and storage conditions. The development of the risk assessment comprised three steps: (1) initial contamination level of raw material by ascospores (N₀), (2) inactivation of ascospores during thermal processing (N_p) and (3) determination of the number of ascospores which are able to survive thermal processing and develop visible mycelia (D = 2 mm) during storage (N_f). Data of visible growth (t_v, days) comprised distributions previously obtained as function of water activity (a_w) (0.860-0.985), oxygen (0-21%), temperature (8-30 °C) and pasteurization (95-105 °C/15 s). The simulations were performed in triplicate with 100,000 iterations using the software R. The outcome "spoilage risk" was defined as the probability of having at least one ascospore (N_f) capable of forming visible colonies in 100 g-pack strawberry puree within the typical use-by dates. Overall, high probabilities of spoilage were estimated for purees pasteurized at milder treatments at 85 °C/15-60 s (67%) and 90 °C/15-60 s (≥40%) stored at ambient temperature (22 °C). The spoilage risk was only effectively reduced (0.02%) by increasing pasteurization conditions to 95 °C for at least 45 s. Moreover, the microbial stability of such purees, i.e., spoilage risk <0.001% (=less than 1 spoilage pack out of 10⁵ produced units) was predicted to occur for purees treated at 100 °C/15 s or stored at chilled conditions (≤8 °C) or at strict anaerobic conditions or produced as concentrates (a_w ≤ 0.860). Based on the outcomes obtained, a set of specifications for Heat-Resistant Moulds (HRMs) in raw material and pasteurized purees aimed to be used as an ingredient was suggested. Furthermore, the results can be used to support risk management decisions in identifying and quantifying the impact of possible interventions during formulation, processing and storage conditions of fruit purees to effectively reduce this risk.

Influence of seasonal variation and processing on protein glycation and oxidation in regular and hay milk

Climate and feeding influence the composition of bovine milk, which is further affected by thermal treatment inducing oxidation and Maillard reactions. This study aimed to evaluate season- and processing-related changes in the modified proteome of milk from two different feeding systems. Therefore, tryptic digests of regular and hay milk were analyzed by targeting 26 non-enzymatic modifications using LC-MS. Forty-five glycated, 48 advanced glycation endproduct (AGE-) modified, and 20 oxidized/carbonylated peptides representing 44 proteins were identified with lactosylation, formyllysine, and carboxymethyllysine being most common. The numbers and quantities of glycation- and oxidation-related modifications were similar between regular and hay milk and among seasons. The effects of pasteurization and ultra-high temperature (UHT) treatment were comparable for both milk types. In particular UHT treatment increased the numbers of identified modifications and the relative quantities of lactosylated peptides. The number of identified AGE-modified and oxidized residues increased slightly after UHT-treatment, but the contents were stable.

Effect of thermal processing on the biochemical constituents of green mussel (Perna viridis) in Tin-free-steel cans

The effect of thermal processing on the biochemical constituents of green mussel (Pernaviridis) in brine was investigated. Depurated mussel samples were thermal processed in tin-free steel cans (TFS) at F0 8.43. The time temperature data was collected during heat processing using EVAL data recorder and heat penetration characteristics were determined using formula method. The total process time was 27.48 min and the processed cans were found to be commercially sterile. The mineral composition of processed mussel was significantly higher than raw samples. The instrumental texture analysis indicated that product become soft after thermal processing.The thermal process led to a significant decrease in total amino acid and fatty acid content of the samples. Even though the samples showed a decrease in amino acid and fatty acid composition after thermal processing, the mussel meat was nutritionally well balanced with respect to essential anino acids and fatty acids.Hence the product can be considered as a food source with high quality protein and fat to fulfil consumer's requirements.Based on sensory analysis, the processed products were found acceptable during the study period.

Comprehensive proteomic analysis of sea cucumbers (Stichopus japonicus) in thermal processing by HPLC-MS/MS

Thermal processing is the most frequently adopted processing technology for sea cucumbers, which can significantly affect their protein composition. In this paper, three thermal processing methods high pressure steaming (HPS), atmospheric pressure boiling (APB), and atmospheric pressure steaming (APS) were adopted and protein compositions of both body walls and cooking liquors by thermal processing stichopus japonicus were systematically analysis by proteomic strategy. The total proteins loss rates of body walls were 11.6%, 13.0%, and 14.8% for HPS, APS, and APB methods, respectively. However, the main types of protein composition were retained. Similar mechanisms of protein loss may exist even if different thermal processing were applied. The most frequent hydrolysis sites in thermal processing were phenylalanine, leucine, asparagine, and tyrosine at both C and N terminals. This study provides theoretical guidance for optimizing the industry thermal processing of sea cucumbers.

Influence of thermal processing on the volatile constituents of muskmelon puree

Muskmelon (Cucumis melo L) is an important tropical fruit cultivated widely in different parts of India. Fresh muskmelon has a delicate but characteristic flavor rendering the fruit with highly acceptable flavor. Processing and preservation of muskmelon puree requires thermal processing, which affects the volatile constituents. It is imperative to understand the flavor changes during thermal processing which would affect the quality of the processed and packed muskmelon puree. Muskmelon puree was subjected to different methods of thermal processing viz., heating, canning and packing in retort pouches and the volatile constituents were analyzed. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) indicated the presence of more than 49 volatile components in the muskmelon puree samples. Major volatile components identified using GC-MS analysis showed the presence of esters (27.29 %), aldehydes (18.57 %), Heterocyclic compounds (16.63 %), aliphatic alcohols (11.72 %), phenolic compounds (6.03 %) and sesquiterpenes (0.25 %) in the fresh samples. Aldehydes decreased and ester content increased in thermally processed muskmelon puree packed in cans and retort pouches. Aliphatic alcohols, Heterocyclic compounds and phenolic compounds decreased in puree processed in tin containers and retort pouches.

New vacuum cooking techniques with extra-virgin olive oil show a better phytochemical profile than traditional cooking methods: A foodomics study

In this work, the major changes in extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) composition during cooking were assessed. A foodomics approach based on both metabolomics and lipidomics was used to evaluate the impact of six different cooking techniques, three traditional and three more innovative (Crock-pot®, Roner® and Gastrovac®), and the effect of temperature and cooking time. The lipophilic and hydrophilic fractions of EVOO that underwent different cooking processes were characterized by untargeted high-resolution mass spectrometry approaches. Multivariate statistics were used to unravel the differences in chemical signatures. The different cooking methods resulted in broadly different phytochemical profiles, arising from thermally driven reactions accounting for hydrolysis, synthesis, and oxidation processes. The innovative cooking techniques marginally altered the phytochemical profile of EVOO, whereas sauteing was the cooking method determining the most distinctive profile. Conventional cooking methods (oven, pan-frying, and deep-frying) produced more oxidation products (epoxy- and hydroxy-derivatives of lipids) and markedly induced degradation processes.

Occurrence of Ethyl Carbamate in Foods and Beverages: Review of the Formation Mechanisms, Advances in Analytical Methods, and Mitigation Strategies

ABSTRACT

Ethyl carbamate (EC) is a process contaminant that can be formed as a by-product during fermentation and processing of foods and beverages. Elevated EC concentrations are primarily associated with distilled spirits, but this compound has also been found at lower concentrations in foods and beverages, including breads, soy sauce, and wine. Evidence from animal studies suggests that EC is a probable human carcinogen. Consequently, several governmental institutions have established allowable limits for EC in the food supply. This review includes EC formation mechanisms, occurrence of EC in the food supply, and EC dietary exposure assessments. Current analytical methods used to detect EC will be covered, in addition to emerging technologies, such as nanosensors and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Various mitigation methods have been used to maintain EC concentrations below allowable limits, including distillation, enzymatic treatments, and genetic engineering of yeast. More research in this field is needed to refine mitigation strategies and develop methods to rapidly detect EC in the food supply.

HIGHLIGHTS

The impact of processing on the release and antioxidant capacity of ferulic acid from wheat: A systematic review

The antioxidant capacity and bioaccessibility of ferulic acid (FA)¹ in wheat are highly limited by the lack of free ferulic acid (FFA).² However, many studies claim that wheat processing can efficiently increase FFA content and ultimately influence the overall antioxidant capacity. Hence, this systematic review investigated changes in FFA content, antioxidant capacity and bioaccessibility of wheat after different processing treatments. A literature search of two databases (PubMed and Web of Science) was undertaken covering the last 20 years, yielding 1148 articles. Studies which employed bioprocessing, thermal processing and milling of wheat were considered. After exclusion criteria were applied, 36 articles were included. These covered single processing methods (n = 25, bioprocessing: n = 9, thermal processing: n = 9, milling n = 7) and combined processing methods (n = 11, bioprocessing & thermal processing = 7, bioprocessing, thermal processing & milling = 2, thermal processing & milling = 2). The total ferulic acid (TFA)³ content, degree of covalent bond hydrolysis and the percentage of FFA degraded or transformed to other compounds dominated the final changes in FFA content, antioxidant capacity and bioaccessibility. This systematic review is the first to comprehensively summarize the best efficient processing method for releasing FA and increasing antioxidant capacity and or bioaccessibility in wheat. The combination of particle size reduction, pre-hydrolysis thermal processing (except at high temperature and extended duration) and enzymatic hydrolysis (ferulic acid esterase (FAE)⁴ or fermentation) has the highest potential of releasing FA. However, the literature on the bioaccessibility of FA in wheat is limited and more work is required to demonstrate the link between the release of FA by processing and the consequent health benefits.

Agricultural and non-agricultural directions of bio-based sewage sludge valorization by chemical conditioning

This literature review outlines the most important-agricultural and non-agricultural-types of sewage sludge management. The potential of waste sludge protein hydrolysates obtained by chemical sludge conditioning was reported. The discussed areas include acidic and alkaline hydrolysis, lime conditioning, polyelectrolyte dewatering and other supporting techniques such as ultrasounds, microwave or thermal methods. The legislative aspects related to the indication of the development method and admission to various applications based on specified criteria were discussed. Particular attention was devoted to the legally regulated content of toxic elements: cadmium, lead, nickel, mercury, chromium and microelements that may be toxic: copper and zinc. Various methods of extracting valuable proteins from sewage sludge have been proposed: chemical, physical and enzymatic. While developing the process concept, you need to consider extraction efficiency (time, temperature, humidity, pH), drainage efficiency of post-extraction residues and directions of their management. The final process optimization is crucial. Despite the development of assumptions for various technologies, excess sewage sludge remains a big problem for sewage treatment plants. The high costs of enzymatic hydrolysis, thermal hydrolysis and ultrasonic methods and the need for a neutralizing agent in acid solubilization limit the rapid implementation of these processes in industrial practice.

Determination and risk assessment of acrylamide in thermally processed Atractylodis Macrocephalae Rhizoma

As one of the medicine homologous foods in China, Atractylodis Macrocephalae Rhizoma (AMR) is usually distributed after thermal processing, which raised the possibility of acrylamide pollution and a potential carcinogenic risk. In this study, a method was developed for the determination of the acrylamide in AMR using graphited multiwalled carbon nanotubes as the dispersive solid phase extraction sorbent and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The concentration of acrylamide was investigated at processing conditions of 80℃-210℃ and 5 min-100 min. Method validation results demonstrated the reliability of the method with good linearity, accuracy and precision. Significant increment of acrylamide was found in AMR after thermal processing with the highest concentration at 9826 μg/kg, which led to a margin of exposure at 90.83-181.7 according to the BMDL₁₀ of carcinogenicity at 0.17 mg/kg, indicating a high health risk of taking thermally processed AMR, and monitoring and controlling should be considered.