Unusual case of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartic acid-receptor (NMDA-R) encephalitis and autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (APS)

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartic acid-receptor (NMDA-R) encephalitis is a novel disease discovered within the past 10 years. It is an autoimmune disease (AD) that has been associated with other ADs, such as Graves' disease. However, association with autoimmune polyglandular syndromes (APS) has not been previously described. A 58-year-old woman presented with altered mental status and an 8-month history of weight loss, apathy and somnolence. Laboratory evaluation confirmed Graves' disease with thyrotoxicosis and type 1 diabetes mellitus. Despite treatment, she continued to have a fluctuating mental status. Further diagnostic evaluation included an abdominal MRI that showed a cystic lobular left adnexal mass. Serum anti-NMDA-R antibodies were positive, raising concern for NMDA-R encephalitis. Bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy was performed, with pathology consistent with cystadenofibroma. She had a favourable recovery with marked clinical improvement. Anti-NMDA-R antibodies were negative 2 months following surgery. The concomitant occurrence of APS and anti-NMDA-R encephalitis suggests a shared mechanism of autoimmune pathophysiology.

Concurrent variant type 3 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome and pulmonary arterial hypertension in a Japanese woman

We describe a very rare case of concurrent variant type 3 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (APS) and pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). A previously healthy 65-year-old Japanese woman was referred to our university hospital with a 2-month history of general fatigue and hyperglycemia. Laboratory tests revealed severe hyperglycemia (plasma glucose 543 mg/dL and HbA1c 10.7%) with ketonuria (3+). Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) and IA-2 antibodies were positive, and the serum C peptide level was markedly decreased to 0.2 ng/mL. Accordingly, type 1 diabetes was diagnosed. Hashimoto's thyroiditis was also diagnosed because she had a diffuse goiter and a mild hypothyroidism (TSH 8.20 μU/mL, and FT4 0.80 ng/mL) with positive autoantibodies for thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin. There was neither adrenal insufficiency nor hypocalcemia. In addition, chest X ray showed a suspicious PAH by a dilation of both pulmonary arteries, especially right descending artery, and right heart catheterization confirmed the presence of PAH. HLA Class II genotyping revealed DRB1-DQB1*0901-*0303, a common susceptibility haplotype in Japanese patients with type 3 APS or acute-onset type 1 diabetes. The combination of variant type 3 APS and PAH is extremely rare and to the best of knowledge, this is the first case reported in a Japanese patient.

Limbal Stem Cell Deficiency in the Context of Autoimmune Polyendocrinopathy

PURPOSE

To report two sisters with bilateral progressive visual loss and photophobia secondary to stem cell deficiency due to multiple endocrine deficiency.

METHODS

Case reports and review of medical literature.

RESULTS

The younger sister had severe photophobia and decreased visual acuity since May 2000. Despite multiple outpatient visits no definite cause was found and conservative treatments failed. On slit lamp examination severe meibomian gland dysfunction, loss of eyelashes, decreased tear meniscus, diffuse corneal vascularization, and delayed punctate fluorescein staining of corneal epithelium were detected. She also had episodes of hypotension, oral candidiasis, and seizures. Her systemic workup revealed multiple endocrine deficiency (Addison's disease and hypoparathyroidism). Hormone replacement therapy with fludrocortisone and oral calcium accompanied by punctual occlusion led to significant clinical recovery . The older sister showed a similar pattern but interestingly the onset was later and the signs and symptoms were milder.

CONCLUSIONS

In the pediatric age group with diffuse corneal vascularization and no definite cause, systemic workup should be done to rule out multiple endocrine deficiencies. The therapy consists of hormone replacement therapy and management of dry eye.

Autoreactive T Cells and Chronic Fungal Infection Drive Esophageal Carcinogenesis

Humans with autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy (APECED), a T cell-driven autoimmune disease caused by impaired central tolerance, are susceptible to chronic fungal infection and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). However, the relationship between autoreactive T cells and chronic fungal infection in ESCC development remains unclear. We find that kinase-dead Ikkα knockin mice develop APECED-like phenotypes, including impaired central tolerance, autoreactive T cells, chronic fungal infection, and ESCCs expressing specific human ESCC markers. Using this model, we investigated the link between ESCC and fungal infection. Autoreactive CD4 T cells permit fungal infection and incite tissue injury and inflammation. Antifungal treatment or autoreactive CD4 T cell depletion rescues, whereas oral fungal administration promotes, ESCC development. Inhibition of inflammation or epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) activity decreases fungal burden. Fungal infection is highly associated with ESCCs in non-autoimmune human patients. Therefore, autoreactive T cells and chronic fungal infection, fostered by inflammation and epithelial injury, promote ESCC development.

[Postpartum thyroiditis as the first clinical manifestation of autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 2 – case report]

Postpartum thyroiditis is a form of autoimmune thyroiditis developing during the first 12 months postpartum in 5-10% of women as a consequence of the immunologic flare following the immune suppression of pregnancy. Autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes are rarely diagnosed conditions characterized by the association of at least two organspecific autoimmune disorders, and on the basis of their clinical picture, they may be divided into four different types. The underestimation of their real frequency probable results from physicians’ inadequate knowledge of these clinical entities and sometimes their atypical clinical picture. Although autoimmune thyroid disease may be a component of both type 2 and 3 autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes, but the association between postpartum thyroiditis and autoimmune conditions of other endocrine organs has very rarely been described in literature. We report a case of a young woman, who after two subsequent pregnancies developed postpartum thyroiditis of different clinical pictures. After her second pregnancy, postpartum thyroiditis was followed by the development of autoimmune adrenal failure and premature ovarian failure, which allowed to diagnose type 2 autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome. Our case study suggests that every person with postpartum thyroiditis, particularly if this disorder is accompanied by atypical clinical manifestation, should be assessed for the possible presence of autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome.

Ocular manifestations of autoimmune polyendocrinopathy syndrome type 1

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The ocular manifestations in autoimmune polyendocrinopathy syndrome type 1 (APS1) are frequent and have a poor prognosis. The phenotype of these APS1-associated ocular features have been recently characterized in molecularly confirmed patients with APS1.

RECENT FINDINGS

Keratopathy and retinopathy can be severe manifestations of APS1. Heterogeneous corneal involvement can be observed, ranging from minimal superficial punctate staining to severe stromal scarring with deep corneal neovascularization. This phenotypic heterogeneity, observed even in patients with identical AIRE mutations, is suggestive of a poor genotype-phenotype correlation. Similarly, in patients with retinopathy, peripheral pigmentary changes are noted in all cases, yet with heterogeneous severity, ranging from isolated patchy atrophy of the retinal pigment epithelium to a retinitis pigmentosa-like fundus. Macular atrophy with vision loss is found in most cases. The severity of ophthalmic findings is uncorrelated to that of systemic manifestations. An autoimmune origin with specific autoantibodies directed against corneal and/or retinal autoantigens is the main mechanism believed to be responsible for the ocular manifestations of APS1.

SUMMARY

Progressive keratopathy and/or retinopathy can lead to severe visual loss and pain in patients with APS1. Although no treatment has shown efficacy regarding the APS1-associated ocular manifestations, ophthalmologic examinations are recommended in these patients.

Delayed diagnosis with autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 2 causing acute adrenal crisis: A case report

BACKGROUND

Autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 2 (APS-2), also known as Schmidt's syndrome, is an uncommon disorder characterized by the coexistence of Addison's disease with thyroid autoimmune disease and/or type 1 diabetes mellitus. Addison's disease as the obligatory component is potentially life-threatening. Unfortunately, the delayed diagnosis of Addison's disease is common owing to its rarity and the nonspecific clinical manifestation.

METHODS

Here we reported a case of 38-year-old female patient who presented with 2 years' history of Hashimoto's thyroiditis and received levothyroxine replacement. One year later, skin hyperpigmentation, fatigue, loss of appetite, and muscle soreness occurred. She was advised to increase the dose of levothyroxine, but the symptoms were not relieved. After 4 months, the patient accompanied with dizziness, nausea, nonbloody vomiting, and fever. However, she was diagnosed with acute gastroenteritis and fell into shock and ventricular fibrillation subsequently. Further evaluation in our hospital revealed elevated adrenocorticotrophic hormone and low morning serum cortisol, associated with hyponatremia and atrophic adrenal gland. Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism and Hashimoto's thyroiditis were also demonstrated.

RESULTS

After the supplementation with hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone was initiated, the physical discomforts were alleviated and plasma electrolytes were back to normal.

CONCLUSION

The uncommon case involving 3 endocrine organs reinforced the significance of a timely diagnosis and appropriate treatment of APS-2, and physicians needed to sharpen their awareness of the potentially life-threatening disease.

Type 1 Diabetes in Autoimmune Polyendocrinopathy-Candidiasis-Ectodermal Dystrophy Syndrome (APECED): A "Rare" Manifestation in a "Rare" Disease

Type 1 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (APS1) is a rare autosomal recessive disease, caused by mutations in the autoimmune regulator gene (AIRE); the encoded Aire protein plays an important role in the establishment of the immunological tolerance acting as a transcriptional regulator of the expression of organ-specific antigens within the thymus in perinatal age. While a high prevalence for this rare syndrome is reported in Finland and Scandinavia (Norway), autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy syndrome (APECED) cohorts of patients are also detected in continental Italy and Sardinia, among Iranian Jews, as well as in other countries. The syndrome is diagnosed when patients present at least two out of the three fundamental disorders including chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, hypoparathyroidism, and Addison's disease. Among the associated conditions insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (Type 1 diabetes) has been rarely reported in different series of patients and occurring more frequently in Finnish APECED patients. In this review, we analyze the incidence of Type 1 diabetes as a clinical manifestation of APECED in different populations highlighting the peculiar genetic and immunological features of the disease when occurring in the context of this syndrome.

Latent polyglandular autoimmune syndrome type 2 case diagnosed during a shock manifestation

There are many types of polyglandular autoimmune syndrome (PAS). PAS type 2 is the most common type among adults. For PAS type 2 (PAS-2) diagnosis, detection of Addison's disease with autoimmune thyroid disease and/or type 1 diabetes mellitus are required. Premature ovarian insufficiency, pernicious anemia, vitiligo, alopecia, myasthenia gravis, celiac disease and autoimmune diabetes insipidus may be comorbidities of this condition. Contrary to the common belief, latent PAS is more common than the manifest forms. Here, we present a PAS-2 case diagnosed via adrenal crisis. At the time of diagnosis, the case was observed to have thyroid, adrenal and ovarian involvement. Therefore, PAS-2 and possible immunologic disorders were discussed.

Progressive Generalized Lipodystrophy as a Manifestation of Autoimmune Polyglandular Syndrome Type 1

We describe APS1 in a boy with generalized lipodystrophy, oral candidiasis, autoimmune hepatitis and adrenal insufficiency. It is the first time when generalized lipodystrophy is associated with APS1.

[Autoimmune polyglandular syndromes - literature review and analysis of clinical course in chosen cases]

Autoimmune polyglandular syndromes (APS) are the conditions characterized by coexistence of at least two organ-specific endocrine autoimmune disorders. The syndromes often coexist with connective tissue diseases with the presence non-organ specific antibodies. The aim of the study was to present two clinical cases of polymyositis and dermatomyositis in the course of APS type 3d. Case 1, a 24-year-old woman, with diabetes mellitus type 1 was diagnosed at the age of 17 years and polymyositis recognized at the age of 24 years based on clinical manifestations and additional tests (proximal muscle weakness, typical electromyographic changes, typical histopathological changes in skin and muscles biopsy, elevated muscle enzymes) accompanied by interstitial lung disorder. Moreover, Hashimoto`s autoimmune thyroiditis was diagnosed. Case 2, a 47-year-old man, with a several-year history of diabetes mellitus type 1, diagnosed with dermatomyositis and autoimmune thyroiditis. The immunosuppressive therapy was instituted in both cases, which reduced the symptoms of connective tissue disease. To sum up, about 25-30% of patients are affected by extraglandular autoimmune diseases, including connective tissue diseases, in the course of APS. An interdisciplinary approach is required in this group of conditions due to a multitude of disorders as well as diagnostic and therapeutic difficulties.

GASTRIC CARCINOID TYPE 1 IN A PATIENT WITH AUTOIMMUNE POLYGLANDULAR SYNDROME: ADDITIONAL ENDOCRINOLOGICAL EVALUATION REQUIRED

Autoimmune polyglandular syndrome by definition consists of two or more endocrinological insufficiencies or two organ specific autoimmune diseases. There are no stringent criteria for endocrinological evaluation of patients with one endocrine insufficiency. However, detailed endocrinological evaluation should be undertaken in patients with two autoimmune diseases. Additionally, follow up thereafter should be a must in these patients in order to avoid the possibility of not diagnosing subsequent autoimmune diseases that can occur. The aim of this case report is to point to the necessity of endocrinological screening to be made in patients presenting with gastric carcinoid type 1. We report on a 62-year-old woman who was diagnosed with primary hypothyroidism in 1993. In 2011, she was re-admitted to the hospital due to increasing fatigue. Macrocytic anemia, low vitamin B12 levels and positive parietal antibodies confirmed pernicious anemia. Furthermore, she underwent gastroscopy, which revealed two polyps in the corpus of the stomach and one in the fornix. Endoscopic mucosal resection was performed and histopathologic analysis confirmed three G1 gastric carcinoids (Ki67 2%). Additional endocrinological evaluation disclosed positive glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies, but normal fasting and postprandial glucose and HbA1c. In 2013, she was diagnosed with glucose intolerance and subsequently with latent autoimmune diabetes of adulthood. Plasma glucose and HbA1c normalized after dietary intervention. Due to the increase of serum chromogranin A, prophylactic antrectomy was performed in 2014. The patient is still followed-up and has normal chromogranin A, gastrin and HbA1c levels.

Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome and thrombocytosis

We describe a woman aged 37  years, affected with Hashimoto's thyroiditis, detected since the age of 17, with gonadic insufficiency with anti-ovarian antibodies since the age of 22  years and Addison's disease since 24  years old. At that moment, the diagnosis of autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome (APS) was made. Concomitant to this diagnosis, thrombocytosis was detected and aetiological assessment revealed an atrophy of the spleen. Differential diagnoses of APS and hyposplenism will be discussed. We will look at a possible association between these two pathologies. Indeed, asplenism is found in approximately 20% of adults affected by type 1 APS, also called auto-immune polyendocrinopathy candidiasis ectodermal dystrophy (APECED) syndrome. The most likely aetiology for this atrophy of the spleen is a destruction of auto-immunological origin. However, in our patient, the search for a mutation of the autoimmune regulator (AIRE) gene proved negative. This mutation is commonly, but not systematically, present in type 1 APS. A type 2 APS should then be considered.

Retinal degeneration in autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 1: a case series

BACKGROUND

Autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 1 (APS1) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder due to mutations in the AIRE gene.

AIM

To report the ocular features and characterise the retinal phenotype in molecularly confirmed APS1.

METHOD

This retrospective case series reviewed five molecularly confirmed cases with APS1 known to have ocular involvement (age range: 19 months-44 years; mean follow-up of 8 years). The medical history, ocular history and evaluation, visual field testing, full-field electroretinogram (ERG) and antiretinal antibody results were reviewed.

RESULTS

All but one case had decreased vision at first presentation. All cases had peripheral pigmentary retinal changes; macular atrophy was noted in 80% of cases. The most common feature on spectral-domain optical coherence tomography was a disruption of the external limiting membrane and inner segment ellipsoid band (n=3). Fundus autofluorescence imaging demonstrated a parafoveal ring of hyper-autofluorescence (n=1) or a stippled and patchy autofluorescence pattern in the macula (n=1). The visual fields were constricted in all tested patients (n=3). The rod ERG was abnormal in all cases; the relative involvement of rods and cones differed. Four patients who were tested for antiretinal antibodies were found positive by immunohistochemistry (n=3) and/or western blot (n=2).

CONCLUSIONS

Photoreceptor degeneration is part of APS1 phenotype and the presence of antiretinal antibodies strongly supports an aetiology similar to that of non-paraneoplastic autoimmune retinopathy. Periodic retinal evaluation and imaging, visual field testing and ERG would assist in monitoring the retinopathy in APS1-related disease.

Gastrointestinal Autoimmunity Associated With Loss of Central Tolerance to Enteric α-Defensins

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy candidiasis ectodermal dystrophy (APECED) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, hypoparathyroidism, and adrenal insufficiency, but patients also develop intestinal disorders. APECED is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the autoimmune regulator (AIRE, which regulates immune tolerance) that allow self-reactive T cells to enter the periphery. Enteric α-defensins are antimicrobial peptides secreted by Paneth cells. Patients with APECED frequently have gastrointestinal symptoms and seroreactivity against secretory granules of Paneth cells. We investigated whether enteric α-defensins are autoantigens in humans and mice with AIRE deficiency.

METHODS

We analyzed clinical data, along with serum and stool samples and available duodenal biopsies from 50 patients with APECED collected from multiple centers in Europe. Samples were assessed for expression of defensins and other molecules by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and flow cytometry; levels of antibodies and other proteins were measured by immunohistochemical and immunoblot analyses. Histologic analyses were performed on biopsy samples. We used Aire(-/-) mice as a model of APECED, and studied the effects of transferring immune cells from these mice to athymic mice.

RESULTS

Enteric defensins were detected in extraintestinal tissues of patients with APECED, especially in medullary thymic epithelial cells. Some patients with APECED lacked Paneth cells and were seropositive for defensin-specific autoantibodies; the presence of autoantibodies correlated with frequent diarrhea. Aire(-/-) mice developed defensin-specific T cells. Adoptive transfer of these T cells to athymic mice resulted in T-cell infiltration of the gut, loss of Paneth cells, microbial dysbiosis, and the induction of T-helper 17 cell-mediated autoimmune responses resembling those observed in patients with APECED.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with APECED, loss of AIRE appears to cause an autoimmune response against enteric defensins and loss of Paneth cells. Aire(-/-) mice developed defensin-specific T cells that cause intestinal defects similar to those observed in patients with APECED. These findings provide a mechanism by which loss of AIRE-mediated immune tolerance leads to intestinal disorders in patients with APECED.

Vitamin D and autoimmunity: what happens in autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes?

PURPOSE

To evaluate the Vitamin D status of patients with a single autoimmune disease and of patients with several autoimmune diseases.

METHODS

We enrolled 35 patients with isolated type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), 60 with autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes (APS) including T1DM and 72 control subjects. Among patients with APS, 10 were classified as type 2 (Addison's disease + T1DM), whereas the other 50 as type 3 (autoimmune thyroid disease + T1DM + other autoimmune diseases). Vitamin D (25-OHD) levels were assessed by a chemiluminescent immunoassay in all patients and controls on samples drawn in the morning of the same months.

RESULTS

Both groups of APS and T1DM patients showed 25-OHD levels significantly lower than healthy controls (p < 0.001 for both vs controls), without any significant difference between the two groups (p = 0.80). The highest prevalence of vitamin D deficiency (values <20 ng/ml) was observed in APS type 3 subgroup (8 out of 50 patients, 16%).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with APS present reduced vitamin D circulating levels, but the vitamin D status is not different between patients with single or multiple autoimmune diseases. The kind of autoimmune disease, rather than the association of several autoimmune diseases, may influence negatively the levels of vitamin D. Further prospective studies are needed to clarify if impaired vitamin D level is a causal factor in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases or a consequence of them.

Precocious presentation of autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 2 associated with an AIRE mutation

Autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 2 (type 2 APS), or Schmidt's syndrome, is defined by the presence of Addison's disease in combination with type 1 diabetes and/or autoimmune thyroid disease. The estimated prevalence of this syndrome is 1.4-4.5 per 100,000 inhabitants and it is more frequent in middle-aged females, whilst it is quite rare in children. Type 2 APS, which shows a pattern of autosomal dominant inheritance with low penetrance, has been associated with HLA specific DR3/DQ2 and DR4/DQ8 haplotypes. However, it has been hypothesized that genetic variability in the AIRE gene, which causing type 1 APS, may play a role in more common organ-specific autoimmune conditions like type 1 diabetes, Hashimoto's disease and type 2 APS, among others. Here we present the case of an 8-year-old girl, with a past medical history of type 1 diabetes diagnosed at the age of 3. She was taken to the Emergency Department because she complained of abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting, and her blood analysis revealed a severe hyponatremia. She also had seizures as a consequence of the hyponatremia and frequent hypoglycemia. She was ultimately found to be suffering from autoimmune primary adrenal insufficiency. The combination of both mentioned conditions, type 1 diabetes and Addison's disease, in the absence of chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, made a diagnosis of type 2 APS plausible in this girl. The genetic study showed two heterozygous variants: NM_000383.2:C.1411C>T (p. Arg471Cys) in exon 12 and IVS9+6G>A in intron 9 of the AIRE gene. The description of an uncommon case of type 2 APS with precocious presentation associated with an AIRE mutation in a very young girl could help to clarify the role of AIRE in the development of autoimmune diseases.

Autoimmune Polyglandular Syndrome Type 2 with Alopecia Universalis and Hypoparathyroidism

A 46 years old female, presented with severe fatigue, nypotension ana hyperpigmentation. Her basal serum cortisol level at 8 a.m. was < 1.0 μg/dl which suggested a diagnosis of Addison's disease. An association with latent autoimmune diabetes of adult and autoimmune hypothyroidism led to a diagnosis of Polyglandular Autoimmune Syndrome type II (PAS II). She also had alopecia universalis and hypoparathyroidism which are very rare in PAS type II syndrome. On treatment with hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone there was drastic improvement in the clinical features.

[A case of progressive encephalomyelitis with rigidity and myoclonus associated with anti-GAD, anti-glycine receptor and anti-GM1 antibodies]

A 62-year-old woman with one-year history of type 1 diabetes mellitus was admitted to our hospital with progressive weakness in the lower extremities and urinary dysfunction following high fever. On admission, she had rigidity and myoclonus in the upper extremities with sensory ataxia. Cerebrospinal fluid examination revealed mild pleocytosis and oligoclonal band. Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) antibodies were detected at high titer in serum, but antibodies to glycine receptor (GlyR), thyroid peroxidase, mitochondrial M2, and GM1 were also detected. She was diagnosed with progressive encephalomyelitis with rigidity and myoclonus (PERM), which probably developed on the basis of polyglandular autoimmune syndromes. The clinical symptoms began to improve after initiation of intravenous high-dose methylprednisolone. Muscle weakness might be related to GM1 antibodies. This is the first report of PERM, in which GM1 antibodies were detected with GAD and GlyR antibodies.

[Coexistence of autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 3 with diabetes insipidus]

Autoimmune polyglandular syndromes are conditions characterized by the combination of two or more organ-specific disorders. The underestimation oftheir real frequency probable results from physicians' inadequate knowledge of these clinical entities and sometimes their atypical clinical presentation. Because they comprise a wide spectrum of autoimmune disorders, autoimmune polyglandular syndromes are divided into four types, among which type-3 is the most common one. In this article, we report the case of a young female, initially diagnosed with diabetes mellitus who several years later developed full-blown autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 3 consisting of autoimmune thyroid disorder and latent autoimmune diabetes in adults.The discussed case suggests that in selected patients diabetes insipidus may coexist with autoimmune endocrinopathies and nonendocrine autoimmunopathies, as well as that in some patients idiopathic diabetes insipidus may be secondary to lymphocytic infiltration and destruction of the hypothalamic supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei and/or the supraoptic-hypophyseal tract