Families' needs of critical care Muslim patients in Saudi Arabia: a quantitative study

AIM

To identify the needs of families of adult intensive care unit (ICU) patients in Saudi Arabia as perceived by family members and health care providers.

BACKGROUND

Family members of critically ill patients are likely to have specific needs that should be addressed by the critical care team and which, if unmet, may produce stress for patients' families and health care providers. The literature has yet to identify the needs of Muslim families in relation to religious beliefs and cultural values in critical care settings in Saudi Arabia.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional survey design.

METHOD

A total of 176 family members and 497 intensive health care providers were recruited from eight adult mixed medical-surgical ICUs between November 2011 and February 2012 utilizing a four-point Likert type scale self-administered questionnaire.

RESULTS

The findings revealed that family members and health care providers ranked assurance, information and cultural and spiritual needs as the most important, and support and proximity as least important. There were significant differences in the mean values found between family members and health care providers. A significant finding not identified in other studies was 'The need to have the health care providers handle the body of the dead Muslim with extreme caution and respect' which, under the dimension of cultural and spiritual needs, was perceived by family members to be the most important and by the health care providers as the fifth most important need.

CONCLUSION

The recognition of family needs in the critical care unit informed the development of interventions to meet family needs and improve the care quality.

Predicting mortality of critically ill patients by blood glucose levels

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study is to observe the outcome of critically ill patients in relation to blood glucose level at admission and to determine the optimal range of blood glucose at admission predicting lower hospital mortality among critically ill patients.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of a total 1,224 subjects (males, 798; females, 426) admitted to intensive care unit (ICU) from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2010. Blood glucose levels at admission were categorized into four groups (group 1, <100 mg/dL; group 2, 100 to 199 mg/dL; group 3, 200 to 299 mg/dL; and group 4, ≥300 mg/dL).

RESULTS

Among 1,224 patients, 319 patients were already known diabetics, and 296 patients died in ICU. Five hundred fifty-seven subjects received insulin therapy, and 118 received oral hypoglycemic agents. The overall mortality rate was 24.2% (296 patients). The causes of death and mortality rates of diabetic patients were not different from nondiabetic subjects. The mortality curve showed J shape, and there were significant differences in mortality between the groups of blood glucose levels at admission. Group 2 had the lowest mortality rate (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that serum glucose levels upon admission into ICU is associated with clinical outcomes in ICU patients. Blood glucose level between 100 and 199 mg/dL at the time of ICU admission could predict lower hospital mortality among critically ill patients.

Intensive Care Unit Staff and Resource Utilization: Is It an Effective Factor?

BACKGROUND

The aim of present study was to determine the impact of two different ICU management model, open and semi closed, on resources utilization in intensive care unit.

METHOD

Retrospective cohort analysis using data from hospital database was applied to compare the effect of ICU management model on ICU length of stay and bed disposition of 1064 patients admitted to the general ICU of Imam Khomeini Hospital of Tehran, Iran during the two consecutive 12-month periods from Mar, 2009 to Feb, 2010.

RESULTS

In open and semi closed interval 380 and 684 patients were admitted to ICU respectively. There was no significant difference in age, gender and severity of illness (based on APACHE-II score) and nurse to bed ratio between two groups. Average ICU length of stay, net mortality rate and bed turnover rate were lower in semi closed model than open model management significantly (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

Semi closed model improves patient care and lead to lower mortality rate and resources utilization too.

General anxiety symptoms after acute lung injury: predictors and correlates

OBJECTIVE

Acute lung injury (ALI) is common in the intensive care unit (ICU), typically requiring life support ventilation. Survivors often experience anxiety after hospital discharge. We evaluated general anxiety symptoms 3 months after ALI for: (1) associations with patient characteristics and ICU variables, and (2) cross-sectional associations with physical function and quality of life (QOL).

METHODS

General anxiety was assessed as part of a prospective cohort study recruiting patients from 13 ICUs at four hospitals in Baltimore, MD using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale--Anxiety Subscale (HAD-A), with associations evaluated using multivariable linear and logistic regression models.

RESULTS

Of 152 patients, 38% had a positive screening test for general anxiety (HAD-A≥8). Pre-ICU body mass index and psychiatric comorbidity were associated with general anxiety (OR, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.06 (1.00, 1.13) and 3.59 (1.25, 10.30), respectively). No ICU-related variables were associated with general anxiety. General anxiety was associated with the number of instrumental ADL dependencies (Spearman's rho=0.22; p=0.004) and worse overall QOL as measured by EQ-5D visual analog scale (VAS) (rho=-0.34; p<0.001) and utility score (rho=-0.30; p<0.001), and by the SF-36 mental health domain (rho=-0.70; p<0.001) and Mental Component Summary score (rho=-0.73; p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Many patients have substantial general anxiety symptoms 3 months after ALI. General anxiety was associated with patient characteristics and impaired physical function and quality of life. Early identification and treatment of general anxiety may enhance physical and emotional function in patients surviving critical illnesses.

Patients' and relatives' experiences of transfer from intensive care unit to wards

AIMS

This literature review looks at the evidence around transferring patients from intensive care units (ICU) to wards. The literature informs us that patients and their families experience problems when being transferred from an ICU environment and that this increases overall anxiety.

BACKGROUND

The effects of surviving critical illness often have a profound psychological impact on patients and families This study examines the experiences of adult patients, and their families, following their transfer from the ICU to the ward.

FINDINGS

Five themes emerged from this literature review: physical responses, psychological responses, information and communication, safety and security, and the needs of relatives.

CONCLUSIONS

This review reminds us that these problems can be reduced if information and communication around time of transfers were improved.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

As critical care nurses it is essential that we prepare patients and families for transfer to wards.

The impact of acute organ dysfunction on patients' mortality with severe sepsis

Background:

Severe sepsis leads to organ failure and results in high mortality. Organ dysfunction is an independent prognostic factor for intensive care unit (ICU) mortality. The objective of the present study was to determine the effect of acute organ dysfunction for ICU mortality in patients with severe sepsis using administrative data.

Materials and Methods:

A multicenter cross-sectional study was performed in 2008. The study was conducted in 112 teaching hospitals in Japan. All cases with severe sepsis in ICU were identified from administrative data.

Results:

Administrative data acquired for 4196 severe septic cases of 75,069 cases entered in the ICU were used to assess patient outcomes. Cardiovascular dysfunction was identified as the most major organ dysfunction (73.0%), and the followings were respiratory dysfunction (69.4%) and renal dysfunction (39.0%), respectively. The ICU mortality and 28-day means 28-day from ICU entry. were 18.8% and 27.7%, respectively. After adjustment for age, gender, and severity of illness, the hazard ratio of 2, 3, and ≥4, the organ dysfunctions for one organ failure on ICU mortality was 1.6, 2.0, and 2.7, respectively.

Conclusions:

We showed that the number of organ dysfunction was a useful indicator for ICU mortality on administrative data. The hepatic dysfunction was the highest mortality among organ dysfunctions. The hazard ratio of ICU death in severe septic patients with multiple organ dysfunctions was average 2.2 times higher than severe septic patients with single organ dysfunction.

Intensive care unit admission of obstetric cases: a single centre experience with contemporary update

OBJECTIVES. To review the characteristics of a series of obstetric patients admitted to the intensive care unit in a regional hospital in 2006-2010, to compare them with those of a similar series reported from the same hospital in 1989-1995 and a series reported from another regional hospital in 1998-2007. DESIGN. Retrospective case series. SETTING. A regional hospital in Hong Kong. PATIENTS. Obstetric patients admitted to the Intensive Care Unit of Kwong Wah Hospital from 1 January 2006 to 31 December 2010. RESULTS. From 2006 to 2010, there were 67 such patients admitted to the intensive care unit (0.23% of total maternities and 2.34% of total intensive care unit admission), which was a higher incidence than reported in two other local studies. As in the latter studies, the majority were admitted postpartum (n=65, 97%), with postpartum haemorrhage (n=39, 58%) being the commonest cause followed by pre-eclampsia/eclampsia (n=17, 25%). In the current study, significantly more patients had had elective caesarean sections for placenta praevia but fewer had had a hysterectomy. The duration of intensive care unit stay was shorter (mean, 1.8 days) with fewer invasive procedures performed than in the two previous studies, but maternal and neonatal mortality was similar (3% and 6%, respectively). CONCLUSION. Postpartum haemorrhage and pregnancy-induced hypertension were still the most common reasons for intensive care unit admission. There was an increasing trend of intensive care unit admissions following elective caesarean section for placenta praevia and for early aggressive intervention of pre-eclampsia. Maternal mortality remained low but had not decreased. The intensive care unit admission rate by itself might not be a helpful indicator of obstetric performance.

Correlation between peripheral venous and arterial blood gas measurements in patients admitted to the intensive care unit: A single-center study

Background

The objective of this study was to examine the correlation between arterial blood gas (ABG) and peripheral venous blood gas (VBG) samples for all commonly used parameters in patients admitted to a medical intensive care unit (ICU).

Methods

A single-center, prospective trial was carried out in a medical ICU in order to determine the level of correlation of ABG and peripheral VBG measurements. A maximum of five paired ABG–VBG samples were obtained per patient to prevent a single patient from dominating the data set.

Results

Regression equations were derived to predict arterial values from venous values as follows: arterial pH=−1.108+1.145×venous pH+0.008×PCO₂−0.012×venous HCO₃+0.002×venous total CO₂ (R²=0.655), arterial PCO₂=88.6−10.888×venous pH+0.150×PCO₂+0.812×venous HCO₃+0.124×venous total CO₂ (R²=0.609), arterial HCO₃=−89.266+12.677×venous pH+0.042×PCO₂+0.675×venous HCO₃+0.185×venous total CO₂ (R²=0.782). The mean ABG minus peripheral VBG differences for pH, PCO₂, and bicarbonates were not clinically important for between–person heterogeneity.

Conclusion

Peripheral venous pH, PCO₂, bicarbonates, and total CO₂ may be used as alternatives to their arterial equivalents in many clinical contexts encountered in the ICU.

Factors that affect nosocomial catheter-associated urinary tract infection in intensive care units: 2-year experience at a single center

PURPOSE

This study took a retrospective approach to investigate patients with catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) over 2 years at a single hospital's intensive care unit (ICU) to identify meaningful risk factors and causative organisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A retrograde analysis was performed on patients with indwelling catheters between January 2009 and December 2010 in Yeouido St. Mary Hospital medical and surgical ICU. CAUTI was defined as isolated bacterial growth of 100,000 colony-forming units or more either 48 hours after transfer to the ICU if a urinary catheter was placed before the transfer or 48 hours after insertion if the catheter was inserted in the ICU. Only the patients whose culture results were negative before ICU admission were included.

RESULTS

There were a total of 1,315 patients with indwelling urinary catheters in our hospital's medical and surgical ICU between January 2009 and December 2010. Of these patients, 241 had positive urine culture results, and 61 had CAUTI. Using multivariate logistic regression analysis, those with diabetes were 4.55 (p<0.001) times as likely to have occurrences of CAUTI than were those without and also had a 1.10-fold (p<0.01) longer duration of an indwelling catheter. Upon urine culture, among the 61 patients with CAUTI, Escherichia coli was the most common bacterium grown; it was identified in 24 patients (38.7%).

CONCLUSIONS

The factors and causative organisms contributing to the development of CAUTI in the management of ICU patients must be considered to prevent the occurrence of UTIs in this setting.

Comparing two levels of closed system suction pressure in ICU patients: Evaluating the relative safety of higher values of suction pressure

BACKGROUND

Endotracheal suctioning (ETS) is one of the most common supportive measures in intensive care units (ICU). ETS may be associated with complications including hypoxia and tachycardia. Closed system suctioning (CSS) decreases the rate of cardiorespiratory complication mainly due to continuation of ventilatory support and oxygenation during procedure. CSS has questionable efficacy, therefore higher values of negative pressure has been recommended to enhance the efficacy of CSS. This study was designed to evaluate the effects on gas exchange of 200 mmHg suctioning pressure compared with 100 mmHg in CSS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifty mechanically ventilated (MV) ICU patients were selected for the study. Two consecutive ten seconds CSS using suction pressures of 100 and 200 mmHg, in random order applied in each subject with the two hours wash out period. Effects of two levels of suction pressure on gas exchange were measured by recording the SPo2 values at 4 times.

RESULTS

Repeated measure analysis of variance didn't show any significant difference between two levels of pressure (P = 0.315), but within each groups (100 and 200 mmHg) SPO2 changes was significant (P = 0.000). There was a mild but significant and transient increase in heart rate following both suction pressures, but no significant difference between two groups.

CONCLUSION

The results show that CSS with suction pressure 200 mmHg has no detrimental effect on cardiorespiratory function of MV ICU patients. Since the safety of 200 mmHg suctioning pressure was approved, using 200 mmHg suction pressures is recommended for ETS of MV patients.

Difference in patient outcomes coming from public and private hospitals in an intensive care unit in Brazil

Background

Compare demographic data, mortality and intensive care unit length of stay (ICU LOS) in patients coming from public hospitals of the Brazilian Unified Health System and patients coming from private hospitals of the Brazilian Supplementary Health System in a single private general ICU.

Methods

A retrospective cohort study was performed on patients in the ICU of Hospital Anchieta in Brasilia, DF, Brazil, over a period of 2 years. The patients were divided into 2 groups: patients from public hospitals of the Unified Health System group (PUBH, N = 75) and patients from private hospitals of the Brazilian Supplementary Health System group (PRIH, N = 1,614).

Results

In total, 1,689 patients were admitted. For the entire cohort, the median age was 62 ± 17 years, and the mean APACHE II score was 13 ± 7. The PUBH had a higher APACHE II score (18 ± 9 versus 12 ± 7, P = 0.00), were younger (53 ± 2 versus 63 ± 16 years, P = 0.00), and had higher incidence of circulatory shock (19.2 versus 11.4%, P = 0.01), and kidney injury or renal failure (38.4 versus 25.5%, P = 0.01) at the time of ICU admission, compared to the PRIH. The ICU LOS was longer for the PUBH compared to the PRIH (18 ± 18 versus 6 ± 14 days, P = 0.00). The overall mortality rate was higher for the PUBH compared to the PRIH (33.3 versus 9.7%, P = 0.00).

Conclusions

In a single ICU, where patients had access to the same human and technological resources, patients from the PUBH had a higher APACHE II score, ICU LOS, and mortality rate than those from the PRIH.

The incidence, causes, and prognostic significance of new-onset thrombocytopenia in intensive care units: a prospective cohort study in a Korean hospital

This study was designed to investigate the incidence, causes, and outcomes of new-onset thrombocytopenia (NOT) in Korean intensive care units (ICUs). A prospective cohort study was conducted in medical ICUs of Samsung Medical Center between August 2010 and February 2011. All newly admitted patients were included if they stayed in the ICU for more than 48 hr and did not have thrombocytopenia upon admission. A total of 186 patients were included. NOT developed in 37.1%. Most common cause of NOT was sepsis with disseminated intravascular coagulation (66.7%), followed by drug-induced thrombocytopenia (18.8%), and heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (2.9%). IgG-specific antibody to platelet factor 4/heparin was positive in 2.4% among patients treated with heparin, and thrombosis occurred in two patients. Twenty eight-day mortality was higher in patients that developed NOT compared to those that did not develop NOT (39.1% vs 12%, P < 0.001). NOT increased the odds ratio of 28-day mortality and was an independent risk factor for mortality (OR 3.52; 95% CI 1.32-9.38; P = 0.012). In conclusion, NOT is common and is an independent risk factor for mortality in Korean ICU patients. Therefore, clinicians should make every effort to correct the causes of NOT.

Clinical Profile of Obstetric Patients Admitted to the Medical-Surgical Intensive Care Unit (MSICU) of an Inner-City Hospital in New York

BACKGROUND

Pregnancy is associated with physiological and anatomical changes that usually occur uneventfully in majority of women. However, these changes can cause major maternal morbidity with potential catastrophic consequences. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the clinical characteristics of obstetric patients admitted to the MSICU of an inner-city hospital in New York.

METHODS

A prospective, observational study was conducted among all the obstetric patients admitted to the MSICU between June 1, 2009 and June 30, 2012.

RESULTS

A total of 19 obstetric patients were admitted to the MSICU between June 1, 2009 and June 30, 2012. The most common comorbidity on admission was hypertensive disorder. Hemodynamic unstability and shock was the most common admission diagnosis. The mean length of stay was 3.5 days. One patient died.

CONCLUSIONS

Obstetric hemorrhage and pregnancy-induced hypertensive disorders remains as the most common entities requiring intensive care unit (ICU) admission among obstetric patients. A multidisciplinary team involvement is essential in the management of these patients.

Enteral nutrition associated non-occlusive bowel ischemia

We describe two patients, with no previous history of vascular problems but poor lung function, who experienced septic shock due to bowel ischemia. Both were fed an enteral formula rich in fiber using a feeding tube and experienced septic shock with regular enteral feeding. Surgical finding showed hemorrhagic ischemia in the bowel. The pathologic finding suggests these changes may have been due to inspissations of bowel contents, which may put direct pressure on the mucosa of the bowel wall, leading to local impairment of mucosal and submucosal blood flow with subsequent bowel necrosis. Bowel ischemia may have been precipitated by an increased mesenteric blood flow requirement in combination with a metabolically stressed bowel. Patients in the intensive care unit fed a fiber-rich enteral formula may have inspissated bowel contents, leading to bowel ischemia, suggesting that the use of fiber-rich formula should be limited in patients at high-risk of bowel ischemia.

Is close monitoring in the intensive care unit necessary after elective liver resection?

Purpose

Many surgical patients are admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU), resulting in an increased demand, and possible waste, of resources. Patients who undergo liver resection are also transferred postoperatively to the ICU. However, this may not be necessary in all cases. This study was designed to assess the necessity of ICU admission.

Methods

The medical records of 313 patients who underwent liver resections, as performed by a single surgeon from March 2000 to December 2010 were retrospectively reviewed.

Results

Among 313 patients, 168 patients (53.7%) were treated in the ICU. 148 patients (88.1%) received only observation during the ICU care. The ICU re-admission and intensive medical treatment significantly correlated with major liver resection (odds ratio [OR], 6.481; P = 0.011), and intraoperative transfusions (OR, 7.108; P = 0.016). Patients who underwent major liver resection and intraoperative transfusion were significantly associated with need for mechanical ventilator care, longer postoperative stays in the ICU and the hospital, and hospital mortality.

Conclusion

Most patients admitted to the ICU after major liver resection just received close monitoring. Even though patients underwent major liver resection, patients without receipt of intraoperative transfusion could be sent to the general ward. Duration of ICU/hospital stay, ventilator care and mortality significantly correlated with major liver resection and intraoperative transfusion. Major liver resection and receipt of intraoperative transfusions should be considered indicators for ICU admission.

Incidence and susceptibility of aerobic Gram-negative bacilli from 20 Canadian intensive care units: 1989-1993

OBJECTIVE

To assess the prevalence of antibiotic resistance in Canadian intensive care units.

DESIGN

The antimicrobial profiles of 1939 Gram-negative bacilli isolated in 20 Canadian intensive care units were analyzed using a custom designed MicroScan panel.

SETTING

The majority of the hospitals were tertiary care institutions, but some community hospitals were included.

PATIENTS

Adult intensive care unit patients were the sources of isolates.

MAIN RESULTS

Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the most frequently isolated microorganism overall, with Escherichia coli the most common initial isolate. Comparison of initial and repeat isolates showed that P aeruginosa readily acquired resistance to all antibiotic classes except the aminoglycosides. Enterobacter aerogenes developed resistance to ciprofloxacin and Enterobacter cloacae demonstrated resistance to all beta-lactam antibiotics except for imipenem on repeat isolation. Other Enterobacteriaceae remained susceptible. Historical comparison with data derived four years previously from 15 of the centres showed increased resistance of P aeruginosa and Acinetobacter species to ciprofloxacin while other susceptibility patterns remained stable.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of Gram-negative resistance in Canadian hospitals is less than that reported in surveys done in some other countries, and was relatively stable over four years.

Usefulness of anti-PF4/heparin antibody test for intensive care unit patients with thrombocytopenia

BACKGROUND

It is critical to differentiate heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) from disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) in heparinized intensive care unit (ICU) patients with thrombocytopenia because the therapeutic approach differs based on the cause. We investigated the usefulness of PF4/heparin antibody tests in these patients.

METHODS

A total of 127 heparinized ICU patients whose platelet counts were <150×10(9)/L or reduced by >50% after 5-10 days of heparin therapy were enrolled. PF4/heparin antibodies were measured using 2 immunoassays. We assessed the probability of HIT by using Warkentin's 4T's scoring system for antibody positive patients and compared routinely performed coagulation test results between patients with and without antibodies to evaluate the ability of these tests to discriminate between HIT and DIC.

RESULTS

Positive results were obtained for 14 (11.0%) and 11 (8.7%) patients in the 2 assays. The analysis performed using the 4T's scoring system revealed that 11 of 20 (15.7%) patients with antibodies in at least 1 assay had intermediate or greater probability of HIT. Patients without antibodies had significantly higher levels of D-dimer than those with antibodies. However, there were no intergroup differences in platelet counts, PT, aPTT, fibrinogen, DIC score, and rate of overt DIC.

CONCLUSION

Seropositivity for PF4/heparin antibody was 8.7-11.0% in the patients with thrombocytopenia, and more than a half of them had an increased probability of HIT. Among the routine coagulation tests, only D-dimer was informative for differentiating HIT from DIC. PF4/heparin antibody test is useful to ensure appropriate treatment for thrombocytopenic heparinized ICU patients.

Catheter-related bloodstream infections in neonatal intensive care units

Central venous catheters (CVCs) are regularly used in intensive care units, and catheter-related bloodstream infection (CRBSI) remains a leading cause of healthcare-associated infections, particularly in preterm infants. Increased survival rate of extremely-low-birth-weight infants can be partly attributed to routine practice of CVC placement. The most common types of CVCs used in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) include umbilical venous catheters, peripherally inserted central catheters, and tunneled catheters. CRBSI is defined as a laboratory-confirmed bloodstream infection (BSI) with either a positive catheter tip culture or a positive blood culture drawn from the CVC. BSIs most frequently result from pathogens such as gram-positive cocci, coagulase-negative staphylococci, and sometimes gram-negative organisms. CRBSIs are usually associated with several risk factors, including prolonged catheter placement, femoral access, low birth weight, and young gestational age. Most NICUs have a strategy for catheter insertion and maintenance designed to decrease CRBSIs. Specific interventions slightly differ between NICUs, particularly with regard to the types of disinfectants used for hand hygiene and appropriate skin care for the infant. In conclusion, infection rates can be reduced by the application of strict protocols for the placement and maintenance of CVCs and the education of NICU physicians and nurses.

A Cross-sectional Descriptive Study of Prevalence and Nature of Psychiatric Referrals from Intensive Care Units in a Multispecialty Hospital

CONTEXT

The prevalence of psychiatric comorbidity in general hospital range from 20% to 60%. Presence of psychiatric morbidity compounds the disability and suffering in medical patients. There is a limited literature on the prevalence of psychiatric morbidity in patients admitted in the intensive care units (ICUs).

AIMS

The aim of the study was to estimate the prevalence and nature of comorbid psychiatric illness in the cases referred from ICUs.

SETTINGS AND DESIGN

Cross-sectional observational study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study included all the consecutive patients referred from different ICUs to psychiatry department for consultation during the four-year period from January 1, 2000 to December 31, 2003, assessment was done by psychiatrist and diagnosis was made using ICD-10.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Descriptive statistics.

RESULTS

There were 309 (1.97%) referrals from ICUs to psychiatry department during the period of study. Among the referred patients, diagnosis of organic mental disorders was the commonest psychiatric diagnosis present in 104 (33.65%) patients followed by suicidal attempt in 101 (32.69%); anxiety disorders in 40 (12.94%); depressive disorders in 21 (6.8%); Psychotic illness in 10 (3.24%); other psychiatric illnesses in 28 (9.06%); and nil psychiatric illness in 5 (1.62%) patients.

CONCLUSION

Prevalence of psychiatric referrals from ICUs was low. This could be due to stigma and lack of awareness among physicians. There is increased need for recognition and treatment of comorbid psychiatric illness by the treating physicians which may help to decrease morbidity and overall cost of the treatment.

Noise pollution in intensive care units and emergency wards

INTRODUCTION

The improvement of technology has increased noise levels in hospital Wards to higher than international standard levels (35-45 dB). Higher noise levels than the maximum level result in patient's instability and dissatisfaction. Moreover, it will have serious negative effects on the staff's health and the quality of their services. The purpose of this survey is to analyze the level of noise in intensive care units and emergency wards of the Imam Reza Teaching Hospital, Mashhad.

PROCEDURE

This research was carried out in November 2009 during morning shifts between 7:30 to 12:00. Noise levels were measured 10 times at 30-minute intervals in the nursing stations of 10 wards of the emergency, the intensive care units, and the Nephrology and Kidney Transplant Departments of Imam Reza University Hospital, Mashhad. The noise level in the nursing stations was tested for both the maximum level (Lmax) and the equalizing level (Leq). The research was based on the comparison of equalizing levels (Leq) because maximum levels were unstable.

RESULTS

In our survey the average level (Leq) in all wards was much higher than the standard level. The maximum level (Lmax) in most wards was 85-86 dB and just in one measurement in the Internal ICU reached 94 dB. The average level of Leq in all wards was 60.2 dB. In emergency units, it was 62.2 dB, but it was not time related. The highest average level (Leq) was measured at 11:30 AM and the peak was measured in the Nephrology nursing station.

CONCLUSION

The average levels of noise in intensive care units and also emergency wards were more than the standard levels and as it is known these wards have vital roles in treatment procedures, so more attention is needed in this area.

Reviewing the effect of nursing interventions on delirious patients admitted to intensive care unit of neurosurgery ward in Al-Zahra Hospital, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences

BACKGROUND

Disease is an abnormal process that affects all aspects of the human life. The hospital environment and particularly the intensive care unit (ICU) causes stress in the patient and hi/her family. Delirium, due to its sudden onset and startle, unconsciousness, memory impairment, illusion and dynamic or sedentary behaviors, is known as one of the stressor agents. Despite its high prevalence and the high cost complications such as long term mechanical ventilation, hospital pneumonia, pressure ulcer, prolongation of hospitalization in the hospital or the intensive care units, performance reduction and increase in mortality, this disorder remains unknown in most cases. In line with the other treatment team members, nurses should also participate in controlling the discountable factors, helping patients to cope with uncontrollable factors and using pharmacological methods to manage the delirium and feature their own unique capacity more through quick recognition, reviewing the causes and providing scientific care in improving the quality of patient care and improving the patients' health status. Hence, this study aimed to review the effect of nursing interventions on delirium of the patients admitted to ICU of the neurosurgery ward in Al-Zahra hospital in Isfahan.

METHODS

A two-group multi-stage clinical trial study was carried out on 40 patients with hyperactive delirium admitted to ICU. The questionnaire included demographic data, Richmond Agitation Sedation Scale to assess the irritability rate and study method and also cognitive confusion in intensive care unit to determine delirium status of the study population. Simple sampling method was conducted and the study samples were randomly divided into two intervention and control groups. The following nursing interventions performed on the intervention group: assuring, emotional support, clear information and effective communication with the patients and their families and also allowing family visits twice a day. In the control group, the sample received the normal and routine ICU cares. The irritability and delirium severity status of the samples were analyzed on the day of admission and the fifth day using descriptive and inferential statistical methods and also SPSS software.

RESULTS

Statistical analysis showed that although there was no significant difference between the groups on the first day of admission in terms of the irritability and delirium severity status, this was significant on the fifth day of the study. Wilcoxon test in the intervention and control groups indicated a significant difference between the study subjects in terms of the irritability and delirium severity status on the first day of admission and the fifth day which indicated the reduction in the irritability severity. But, this reduction was higher in the intervention group than in the control group. Furthermore, McNemar test showed that the number of the subjects with delirium in both groups reduced on the fifth day compared to the first day of admission and there was a significant difference between these two days, the number of samples without delirium in the intervention group was almost two times higher than that in the control group on the fifth day.

CONCLUSIONS

Nursing interventions are considered as one of the non-pharmacological methods in treating delirium and by using these methods appropriately in ICUs, the patients' hypoactive delirium can be reduced.

The risk factors and outcome of acute kidney injury in the intensive care units

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common and serious complication in critically ill patients, especially in the intensive care unit (ICU). The present study was performed to evaluate the occurrence rate of AKI using the RIFLE (increasing severity classes risk, injury, and failure, and the two outcome classes loss and end-stage kidney disease) classification, to define factors associated with AKI and hospital mortality.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective study of all ICU patients over a 6-month period at Keimyung University Dongsan Hospital, Daegu, Korea. AKI was evaluated according to the RIFLE classification.

RESULTS

AKI occurred in 156 of the 378 patients (41.3%) during their ICU stay, with maximum RIFLE-R, I, and F in 13.8%, 12.4%, and 15.1%, respectively. In univariate analysis, the proportion of medical admission and maximum Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) score (SOFAmax) were significantly higher in patients with AKI than in those without. However, these factors did not remain significant in a multivariate analysis. The overall mortality rate of ICU patients was 25.7%. In multivariate analysis, mean age, occurrence of AKI, SOFAmax score, pulmonary disease, and malignancy were independent risk factors for hospital mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

In these ICU patients, AKI is associated with increased hospital mortality. The RIFLE classification is a simple and useful clinical tool to detect and stratify the severity of AKI, and may aid in the prediction of outcome.

Role of surgeon in length of stay in ICU after cardiac bypass surgery

BACKGROUND

We presumed that the surgeon himself has an impact on the results after coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) as there is no unique protocol for the discharge of post-operative cardiac patients at our institution. Therefore, we examined whether the surgeon himself has an impact on the intensive care unit (ICU) stay of isolated CABG patients.

METHODS

We prospectively studied a total of 570 consecutive patients undergoing elective CABG. Length of stay in the ICU was defined as the number of days in the ICU unit post-operatively. Seven operating surgeons were classified in 3 categories on the basis of the mean hospital stay of their patients (1, 2 and 3 if the mean total patients' stay in hospital was <8 days, between 8 to 10 days, and longer than 10 days; respectively). Using a multivariable regression model, we determined the independent predictors of length of stay in the ICU (> 48 hours) and examined the role of surgeon in this regard.

RESULTS

Incidence of post-operative arrhythmia and length of ICU stay were higher in the patients of surgeon category 3 than those of surgeon categories 1 and 2. Surgeon category 3 also operated on patients with higher EuroSCOREs than did surgeon categories 1 and 2. With the aid of a multivariable stepwise analysis, three variables were identified as independent predictors significantly associated with ICU length of stay: age, history of cerebrovascular accident, and surgeon category.

CONCLUSION

Surgeon category may independently predict a prolonged length of stay in the ICU. We suggest that a unique discharge protocol for post-CABG patients be considered to restrict the role of surgeon in the ICU stay of these patients.

How is mechanical ventilation employed in a pediatric intensive care unit in Brazil?

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between mechanical ventilation and mortality and the practice of mechanical ventilation applied in children admitted to a high-complexity pediatric intensive care unit in the city of São Paulo, Brazil.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study of all consecutive patients admitted to a Brazilian high-complexity PICU who were placed on mechanical ventilation for 24 hours or more, between October 1(st), 2005 and March 31(st), 2006.

RESULTS

Of the 241 patients admitted, 86 (35.7%) received mechanical ventilation for 24 hours or more. Of these, 49 met inclusion criteria and were thus eligible to participate in the study. Of the 49 patients studied, 45 had chronic functional status. The median age of participants was 32 months and the median length of mechanical ventilation use was 6.5 days. The major indication for mechanical ventilation was acute respiratory failure, usually associated with severe sepsis / septic shock. Pressure ventilation modes were the standard ones. An overall 10.37% incidence of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome was found, in addition to tidal volumes > 8 ml/kg, as well as normo- or hypocapnia. A total of 17 children died. Risk factors for mortality within 28 days of admission were initial inspiratory pressure, pH, PaO2/FiO2 ratio, oxygenation index and also oxygenation index at 48 hours of mechanical ventilation. Initial inspiratory pressure was also a predictor of mechanical ventilation for periods longer than 7 days.

CONCLUSION

Of the admitted children, 35.7% received mechanical ventilation for 24 h or more. Pressure ventilation modes were standard. Of the children studied, 91% had chronic functional status. There was a high incidence of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, but a lung-protective strategy was not fully implemented. Inspiratory pressure at the beginning of mechanical ventilation was a predictor of mortality within 28 days and of a longer course of mechanical ventilation.

Clinical Significance of Strong Ion Gap: between ICU and Hemodialysis Patients with Metabolic Acidosis

Metabolic acidosis is the most frequent acid-base disorder in critically ill patients and dialysis patients. This study is to compare the conventional approach with the physicochemical approach between the intensive care unit (ICU) and hemodialysis (HD) patients. Fifty-seven ICU patients and 33 HD patients were enrolled. All data sets included simultaneous measurements of arterial blood gas with base deficit (BD), serum electrolytes, albumin, lactate, and calculated anion gap observed (AGobs). Physiochemical analysis was used to calculate the albumin and lactate-corrected anion gap (AGcorr), the base deficit corrected for unmeasured anions (BDua), the strong ion difference apparent (SIDa), the strong ion difference effective (SIDe), and the strong ion gap (SIG). The SIDa (37.5±5.3 vs 33.9±9.0, p=0.045) and SIG (12.3±5.3 vs 8.6±8.8, p=0.043) was significantly higher in the HD group than the ICU group. SIG in the ICU group showed the highest correlation coefficient with AGobs, whereas SIG in the HD group with AGcorr. Concerning the contributions of the three main causes of metabolic acidosis, increased SIG was comparable between the ICU and HD group (n=48, 90.6% vs n=30, 93.8%), whereas hyperlactatemia (n=9, 17.0% vs n=0, 0%) and hyperchloremia (n=20, 35.1% vs n=2, 6.1%) was significantly increased in the ICU group compared with the HD group. Multiple underlying mechanisms are present in most of the ICU patients with metabolic acidosis compared with the HD patients. In conclusion, the physicochemical approach can elucidate the detailed mechanisms of metabolic acidosis in ICU and HD patients compared with conventional measures.