Intraarticular morphine versus dexamethasone in chronic arthritis

Intraarticular morphine inhibits pain after knee surgery without overt toxicity. This study examined intraarticular morphine in chronic arthritis. We undertook a randomized double-blind comparison between intraarticular morphine (3 mg), dexamethasone (4 mg) and saline (3 ml) in 44 patients with chronic inflammatory arthritis or osteoarthritis of the knee. Pain (the primary outcome measure) was assessed at rest and during activity for 6 days using a visual analog scale (VAS) and the McGill pain questionnaire. Before drug injections and on day 6 synovial leukocyte counts (the secondary outcome measure) were taken. During the first 6 h after injection both morphine and dexamethasone significantly reduced VAS and pain rating indices (PRI) in comparison to saline. Both substances also produced a significant reduction of PRI compared to saline during the subsequent 5 days. No patient displayed untoward side effects. Synovial leukocyte counts were lower after morphine than after saline. In conclusion, intraarticular morphine produces analgesia of similar magnitude to dexamethasone and it may have antiinflammatory actions in chronic arthritis.

Dehydroepiandrosterone response to the adrenocorticotropin test and the combined dexamethasone and corticotropin-releasing hormone test in patients with multiple sclerosis

Basic and clinical research suggest that disturbed neuroendocrine function may be involved in the pathogenesis and course of autoimmune diseases including multiple sclerosis (MS). Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in this connection is of particular interest as it appears to have effects on the immune system. Moreover, DHEA levels are decreased in chronic inflammatory diseases. To further investigate the role of DHEA in MS, we administered the adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) stimulation test and the combined dexamethasone and corticotropin-releasing hormone (DEX-CRH) test to 24 patients with active MS (13 women, 11 men; age 39 +/- 2 years, mean +/- SEM; Expanded Disability Status Scale, EDSS score 4.4 +/- 0. 4, mean +/- SEM; 12 with acute relapse, 12 with chronic progression) and to 18 healthy controls matched for age and sex (8 women, 10 men; age 37 +/- 3 years). There were no statistically significant differences in the plasma cortisol response to ACTH between any groups. In the DEX-CRH test, plasma cortisol concentrations showed higher values before (DEX-pretreated) and after CRH stimulation in the MS patients than in the controls (AUC(cortisol) 738.3 +/- 154.5 vs. 295.7 +/- 55.8; p < 0.05), this finding was more pronounced in chronic progressive patients. DHEA concentrations were decreased in MS patients (AUC (DHEA) 14.4 +/- 1.6 vs. 23 +/- 2.4; p < 0.05) and cortisol/DHEA ratios were increased in the patients compared to the controls (p < 0.05). There was a positive correlation between the EDSS score and maximum cortisol/DHEA ratio (r = 0.45; p = 0.031). As with the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis system, our results suggest a dysfunction in the DHEA secretion in patients with MS.

Prediction of medium-term outcome by cortisol response to the combined dexamethasone-CRH test in patients with remitted depression

OBJECTIVE

Current hypotheses hold that mechanisms underlying abnormal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) function are causal factors in the precipitation of depression. If this is the case, then normalization of initially disturbed HPA regulation should indicate a good prognosis and persistent HPA dysregulation should be associated with a greater likelihood of relapse or chronicity.

METHOD

The combined dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone test was administered twice to inpatients with major depression (N = 40), once after initiation of treatment and once after remission, shortly before discharge.

RESULTS

Patients with a high cortisol response on both occasions or with a substantially increased cortisol response at discharge were at much higher risk for relapse within the next 6 months than those with low cortisol responses.

CONCLUSIONS

An easy-to-administer neuroendocrine test allows the prediction of medium-term outcome in patients with remitted depression.

Modelling and exploring human sleep with event history analysis

In this paper we propose the use of statistical models of event history analysis for investigating human sleep. These models provide appropriate tools for statistical evaluation when sleep data are recorded continuously over time or on a fine time grid, and are classified into sleep stages such as REM and nonREM as defined by Rechtschaffen and Kales (1968). In contrast to conventional statistical procedures, event history analysis makes full use of the information contained in sleep data, and can therefore provide new insights into non-stationary properties of sleep. Probabilities of or intensities for transitions between sleep stages are the basic quantities for characterising sleep processes. The statistical methods of event history analysis aim at modelling and estimating these intensities as functions of time, taking into account individual sleep history and assessing the influence of factors of interest, such as hormonal secretion. In this study we suggest the use of non-parametric approaches to reveal unknown functional forms of transition intensities and to explore time-varying and non-stationary effects. We then apply these techniques in a study of 30 healthy male volunteers to assess the mean population intensity and the effects of plasma cortisol concentration on the transition between selected sleep stages as well as the influence of elapsed time in a current REM period on the intensity for a transition to nonREM. The most interesting findings are that (a) the intensity of the nonREM-to-REM transitions after sleep onset in young men shows a periodicity which is similar to that of nonREM/REM cycles; (b) 30-45 min after sleep onset, young men reveal a great propensity to pass from light sleep (stages 1 or 2) into slow-wave sleep (SWS) (stages 3 or 4); (c) high cortisol levels imposed additional impulses on the transition intensity of (i) wake to sleep around 2 h after sleep onset, (ii) nonREM to REM around 6 h later, (iii) stage 1 or stage 2 sleep to SWS around 2, 4 and 6 h later and (iv) SWS to stage 1 or stage 2 sleep about 2 h later. Moreover, high cortisol concentrations at the beginning of REM periods favoured the change to nonREM sleep, whereas later their influence on a nonREM change became weak and weaker. As sleep data are also available as event-oriented data in many studies in sleep research, event history analysis applied additionally to conventional statistical procedures, such as regression analysis or analysis of variance, could help to acquire more information and knowledge about the mechanisms behind the sleep process.

Dose-dependence of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) effects on peak response and time course of the immune-endocrine host response in humans

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN

Dose-dependence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) effects on peak and time course parameters of the immune-endocrine host response was examined in a placebo-controlled design.

SUBJECTS

Data from 42 male volunteers were included.

TREATMENT

0.4 or 0.8 ng LPS/kg body weight were applied at 7.00 p.m.

METHODS

Body temperature, heart rate and leukocyte counts were quantified. Plasma levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-6 (IL-6), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), cortisol and human growth hormone (hGH) were measured.

RESULTS

LPS increased significantly the levels of immune (TNF-alpha, IL-6) and endocrine (ACTH, cortisol) parameters. HGH secretion was advanced without changes in the total amount of hGH released. Dose-dependence of endotoxin's effects was significant for neuroendocrine (cortisol) and physiological (temperature, heart rate) parameters. Examination of time course parameters demonstrated that the higher dose of endotoxin prolonged the increases in temperature, IL-6 and cortisol levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data show that increases in the dosage of LPS lead to differential peak responses and changed time course patterns of the human host response.

Transsexualism and osteoporosis

The aim of this study was to investigate whether and to what extent our regime of cross-gender hormone replacement therapy might influence osteoporosis development in transsexual patients. We found that after long-term therapy the bone densities of our cross-gender hormone-treated transsexual groups (10 male-to-female and 10 female-to-male) did not show significant differences compared to those of the corresponding biological sex. Moreover, the bone-density during therapy pointed out very little variability and that independent of the gender-alteration (transsexuality-direction) and the age of the transsexuals. Our results indicate that for transsexual patients treated with cross-gender hormone replacement therapy the risk of developing osteoporosis is low.

A follow-up study for estimating the effectiveness of a cross-gender hormone substitution therapy on transsexual patients

This follow-up study was carried out to validate the effectiveness of cross-gender hormone therapy embedded in a multistep treatment concept for transsexual patients. This therapy described in detail by the authors elsewhere and presented briefly below provides cross-gender hormone substitution to obtain an assimilation of secondary sex characteristics to the desired sex as quickly as possible. Personal and social background data of 46 male-to-female (M-to-F) and 42 female-to-male (F-to-M) patients passing through different stages of the treatment concept were included. In the Endocrinological Outpatient Clinic of the Max-Planck-Institute/Munich the effectiveness of cross-gender hormone replacement therapy as well as frequency and distribution of side effects were examined by follow-up examination of endocrinological parameters. Cross-gender hormones were administered either parenterally or orally. Blood samples were collected routinely after 2 to 6 months depending on the duration of hormone substitution and complication rate. The incidence of hyperprolactinemia in estrogen-treated M-to-F transsexuals lies in the range of studies published before, whereas the number of patients developing galactorrhea is significantly lower in our patients. The incidence of thromboembolic events during the time of cross-gender hormone treatment in our patients is negligible. Changes in hematological parameters are observed under cross-gender hormone therapy. With the cross-gender hormone regimen performed by us it is possible to generate less side effects in the treatment of transsexual patients than described before.

Combined treatment of schizophrenic psychoses with haloperidol and valproate

In accordance with a previous study of adjuvant effects of the anticonvulsant carbamazepine (CBZ) on the neuroleptic treatment of schizophrenic psychoses, the effects of valproate (VPA) were tested in a randomly assigned double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Apart from a (statistically nonsignificant) psychopathological deterioration following discontinuation of VPA while on continuous neuroleptic mediation after four weeks and a statistically significant effect on "hostile belligerence", no overall therapeutic effects of the combination of haloperidol (HPD) with VPA were observed under controlled conditions. Unlike the results with CBZ, concomitant use of VPA led to an even higher consumption of haloperidol and biperiden and to a higher rate of extrapyramidal symptoms compared with the corresponding placebo group, although these differences did not attain statistical significance. In regard to use of the sedative neuroleptic chlorprothixene, there was a trend toward lower doses in the VPA group than in the placebo group. From these results, adjuvant effects like those of carbamazepine in the neuroleptic treatment of schizophrenic psychoses could not be confirmed for valproate in the present study. However, the trend toward lower doses of sedative medication and observed effects on "hostile belligerence" may indicate sedative and/or antimanic properties of valproate which have recently been demonstrated in several controlled studies.

Neurobehavioural disturbances, rehabilitation outcome, and lesion site in patients after rupture and repair of anterior communicating artery aneurysm

OBJECTIVE

To determine: (1) patterns of cognitive and psychiatric dysfunction; (2) those neurobehavioural parameters which mostly influence disability in activities of daily living (ADL) and handicap in occupational and psychosocial activities, and (3) underlying neuroanatomical pathology in patients after rupture and repair of anterior communicating artery (ACoA) aneurysm.

METHODS

30 patients were extensively examined by means of a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests, by rating of psychopathological symptoms, and by use of the functional independence measure (FIM), Glasgow outcome scale (GOS), and MRI.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

(1) Three main groups were characterised by primary impairment of memory, executive functions, or of attentional performance. Within these main groups, specific patterns were identified relating to extent of primary dysfunction and associated disorders. The variety of neuropsychological disturbances is in contradiction to the existence of an "ACoA syndrome" as an entity. (2) Rehabilitation outcome proved to be mostly associated with both memory and attentional performance. (3) In neuropathological terms, lesions of the medial septum and nucleus of the diagonal band of Broca (MS/ndbB) were closely associated with memory deficits and prefrontal lesions were associated with attentional, executive, and psychopathological dysfunctions. At the same time, bilateral lesions were associated with severe disturbances. The type and severity of the above mentioned deficits were independent of the side of lesion in unilateral cases, of rectus gyrus resection, and of the Hunt and Hess grading system.

Effect of flumazenil in lactate-sensitive patients with panic disorder

OBJECTIVE

Flumazenil is a benzodiazepine receptor antagonist that has been reported to provoke panic attacks in patients with panic disorder. This study was undertaken to compare the effects of flumazenil and sodium lactate, the most widely studied panic provocation agent.

METHOD

Ten patients with panic disorder were given infusions of saline, sodium lactate, and flumazenil in randomized order. Panic attacks, psychopathological changes, heart rate, and cortisol and ACTH secretion were recorded.

RESULTS

Eight of the 10 patients experienced a panic attack after sodium lactate, but none did after flumazenil or saline. Cortisol and ACTH secretion were not enhanced by any of the treatments. Sodium lactate increased heart rate, whereas flumazenil had the opposite effect.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings do not lend support to the view that the benzodiazepine receptors of lactate-susceptible patients with panic disorder are hypersensitive and that flumazenil can therefore act as an inverse agonist.

Central administration of IL-1 reduces anxiety and induces sickness behaviour in rats

In the present study, we examined the effects of various doses of recombinant human interleukin-1beta on anxiety-like behaviour, on body temperature, and on behavioural changes typical of sick animals. First, we assessed the behaviour of rats in the elevated plus-maze before and 20 min after intracerebroventricular injection of IL-1 at six doses ranging from 0.001 to 100 ng. After treatment with 0.1 and 100 ng IL-1, animals exhibited different anxiety levels. The dose effect on behavioural performance in the plus-maze appears to be nonlinear (parabolic function), with the highest effects near a 0.1-ng dose and the lowest near doses of 0.0 and 100 ng. In a second set of experiments, we examined the effects of doses of 0.1 and 100 ng IL-1 (which had the most pronounced effects on performance in the plus-maze) on physical parameters over a 24-h period. Using radiotelemetry we measured body temperature, locomotor activity, food intake, and water consumption: a) in animals kept under basal resting conditions, and b) in animals exposed to a novel environment prior to administration of IL-1. Both doses evoked a fever response and reduced locomotor activity, but the increase in body temperature did not correlate with the decrease in locomotor activity and both effects did not occur at the time of behavioural testing. Taken together, our data indicate that central administration of IL-1 has anxiolytic-like properties.

Influence of clonidine on psychopathological, endocrine and respiratory effects of cholecystokinin tetrapeptide in patients with panic disorder

The influence of clonidine pretreatment on psychopathological, endocrine and respiratory effects of cholecystokinin tetrapeptide (CCK-4) was characterized. Patients with panic disorder (DSM-III-R) were given 50 micrograms CCK-4 i.v. at 1100 hours on 2 separate study days. In a randomized double-blind design they were additionally infused with 150 micrograms clonidine or placebo from 1040 to 1110 hours. After CCK-4 all patients experienced symptom attacks. No effects of clonidine on panic psychopathology or blood gas parameters were observed. After CCK-4, in the clonidine condition the pituitary release of adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) and prolactin was seemingly enhanced compared to placebo. Our results suggest that CCK-4-induced panic attacks are not suppressible by presynaptic alpha-2 receptor stimulation. Moreover, they point to a synergistic postsynaptic action of clonidine to CCK-4 upon pituitary hormone secretion. The diverging sites of action might possibly explain the discrepancies of psychopathological alterations and stress hormone secretion.

Autonomic reactivity and hormonal secretion in lactate-induced panic attacks

To compare autonomic and neuroendocrine responses during lactate-induced panic attacks, heart rate variability and cortisol and atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) levels were measured in patients with panic attacks and in healthy control subjects. In a randomized double-blind design, all subjects received either 10 ml/kg body weight of 0.5 M racemic sodium lactate or normal saline from 1100 to 1120. Spectral analysis of the R-R interval of analog electrocardiograms was performed, and total (0.001-0.45 Hz), low-frequency (0.01-0.05 Hz), midfrequency (0.05-0.15 Hz), and high-frequency power (0.15-0.45 Hz) were computed. Cortisol was measured 12 times in the period from 0900 to 1300, and ANH was measured at 1100, 1120, and 1200 by radioimmunoassay. In both panickers (n = 6) and nonpanickers (n = 8), an infusion of lactate resulted in an acceleration of heart rate, a reduction in total spectral power, and a decrease in the high- and low-frequency components of spectral power. Panickers showed a significant enhancement of the high-frequency power, whereas in nonpanickers, a shift from the mid- and high-frequency toward the low-frequency power emerged. ANH plasma concentrations during lactate infusion in panickers showed a significant increase (115 and 131% at 1120 and 1200, respectively, over concentrations at 1100) in contrast to nonpanickers (20 and 74%, respectively). No group or treatment effects on cortisol secretion emerged, which is in line with former reports. Our study supports preliminary observations that lactate-induced panic attacks enhance the release of ANH, a vasodilatator and inhibitor of sympathetic activity. Hence this hormone not only could inhibit the secretion of the stress hormone cortisol but, in parallel, could also attenuate the sympathetic stimulation to the heart. These inhibitory effects of ANH could explain the so-far-unresolved dissociation between psychopathological alterations and autonomic and endocrine responses of panic attacks.

Corticotropin-releasing hormone inhibits melatonin secretion in healthy volunteers--a potential link to low-melatonin syndrome in depression?

Interactions between the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system and melatonin secretion have been demonstrated, but only the effects of melatonin on the activity of the HPA system have been studied in man. Alterations of melatonin secretion described as low-melatonin syndrome have been demonstrated in patients suffering from a major depressive episode, and an inhibitory factor on melatonin secretion has been postulated. We investigated whether corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is thought to be involved in HPA abnormalities in depressed patients, can also suppress melatonin secretion in healthy volunteers. Ten healthy male human volunteers in a double-blind study design received randomized hourly intravenous injections from 08.00 to 18.00 h that contained 10 micrograms human CRH, 1 microgram adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), or placebo to simulate pulsatile hormone secretion. Plasma melatonin and cortisol responses during the treatment and nocturnal sleep electroencephalograms after the treatment were recorded. Administration of CRH reduced melatonin secretion significantly below values obtained after administration of placebo and ACTH. Cortisol secretion was significantly enhanced by ACTH in comparison to both placebo and CRH. Electroencephalographic sleep parameters revealed no treatment effects. Our findings suggest that CRH has an inhibitory effect on the pineal secretion of melatonin in normal man. A mechanism via a release of cortisol was not supported by our results. Secondary hormonal effects from changes in nocturnal sleep architecture were excluded. Further investigation of the action of CRH on melatonin secretion as well as the mutual feedback between the HPA system and the pineal gland may extend our knowledge of neuroendocrine alterations mediating the adaptive response to stress and the eventual involvement in the pathogenesis of depression.

Corticosteroid receptor function is decreased in depressed patients

Decreased feedback control of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system as revealed by the combined dexamethasone and corticotropin-releasing hormone (DEX-CRH) test has been documented in the vast majority of patients with affective disorders. This finding was interpreted as a failure at the level of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR)-mediated feedback action, which apparently fails to restrain HPA activity in the presence of elevated plasma corticosteroid levels. To test this hypothesis we conducted the DEX/CRH test using increasing doses of DEX in order to establish a dose-response relationship. We used three different DEX doses (0.75, 1.5, 3.0 mg) in three groups of depressed patients and controls. As expected, increasing DEX doses were associated with decreasing amounts of adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) and cortisol being released after CRH injection. However, dose-response curves for both plasma ACTH and cortisol concentrations were shifted to higher area under the curve (AUC) values among patients compared to controls. Pretreatment with 0.75 and 1.5 mg DEX produced significantly higher AUC values for both plasma ACTH and cortisol values among patients. These differences became less obvious with the higher DEX doses, indicating that the dose of 1.5 mg used in the majority of clinical studies so far is well suited to differentiate between healthy controls and patients. The reported data here are consistent with the hypothesis that an altered GR capacity or function underlies the exaggerated HPA activity in depression.

No tolerance to peripheral morphine analgesia in presence of opioid expression in inflamed synovia

Pain treatment with centrally acting opiates is limited by tolerance. Tolerance is a decreasing effect of a drug with prolonged administration of that drug or of a related (e.g., endogenous) compound acting at the same receptor. This is often associated with a downregulation of receptors. In peripheral inflamed tissue, both locally expressed opioid peptides and morphine can produce powerful analgesia mediated by similar populations of opioid receptors. We hypothesized that the chronic presence of endogenous opioids in inflamed joints might convey downregulation of peripheral opioid receptors and tolerance to the analgesic effects of intraarticular morphine. We assessed these effects after arthroscopic surgery in patients with and without histologically verified synovial cellular infiltration, and we examined synovial opioid peptides and opioid receptors by immunocytochemistry and autoradiography, respectively. We found that, despite an abundance of opioid-containing cells in pronounced synovitis, morphine is at least as effective as in patients without such cellular infiltrations, and there is no major downregulation of peripheral opioid receptors. Thus, opioids expressed in inflamed tissue do not produce tolerance to peripheral morphine analgesia. Tolerance may be less pronounced for peripherally than for centrally acting opioids, which provides a promising perspective for the treatment of chronic pain in arthritis and other inflammatory conditions.

Trimipramine and imipramine exert different effects on the sleep EEG and on nocturnal hormone secretion during treatment of major depression

In a 4-week double-blind clinical trial we compared the effects of the tricyclic antidepressants trimipramine and imipramine on the sleep EEG and on nocturnal bormone secretion in 20 male inpatients with major depression. Both treatments produced rapid significant clinical improvement in depression without severe adverse effects. However, the two drugs had markedly different neurobiologic profiles. Trimipramine enhanced rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and slow wave sleep, whereas imipramine suppressed REM sleep and showed no effect on slow wave sleep. Total sleep time and the sleep efficiency index increased under trimipramine but not under imipramine. Nocturnal cortisol secretion decreased with trimipramine but remained unchanged with imipramine. In contrast to imipramine, trimipramine induced an increase in prolactin secretion compatible with its known antagonism at dopamine (D2) receptors. Imipramine induced a decrease in growth hormone secretion during the first half of the night. Neither of the drugs induced significant changes in plasma testosterone concentration. We conclude that trimipramine is an antidepressant with sleep-improving qualities that possibly acts through inhibition of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system activity by a yet unknown mechanism.

Pituitary-adrenal-system regulation and psychopathology during amitriptyline treatment in elderly depressed patients and normal comparison subjects

OBJECTIVE

This study was done to compare the effects of 6-week treatment with amitriptyline on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) regulation in elderly depressed patients and age-matched comparison subjects.

METHOD

A combined dexamethasone-suppression/CRH-stimulation (dexamethasone/CRH) test was administered before initiation of amitriptyline treatment and at the end of weeks 1, 3, and 6 of treatment. Thirty-nine depressed inpatients, mean age = 69 years, completed the study. Fourteen normal volunteers, mean age = 67 years, served as comparison subjects.

RESULTS

In relation to the comparison subjects, the depressed patients had a profoundly abnormal HPA response, in particular an exaggerated cortisol release in the dexamethasone/CRH test. This abnormality began to disappear after 1 week of treatment with amitriptyline. In contrast, amitriptyline did not affect neuroendocrine regulation in the comparison subjects at any time during the test period.

CONCLUSIONS

The data suggest that amitriptyline affects HPA regulation in hypercortisolemic depression only, and they raise the possibility that normalization of its feedback control is related to the antidepressive effect of amitriptyline.

Possible role of atrial natriuretic hormone in pituitary-adrenocortical unresponsiveness in lactate-induced panic

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated whether lactate-induced panic attacks in patients with panic disorder would activate atrial natriuretic hormone, which could explain the missing ACTH and cortisol response found in this kind of experimentally induced panic.

METHOD

Sodium lactate and placebo infusions were administered to 10 patients with panic disorder and to 10 healthy comparison subjects, and the atrial natriuretic hormone responses of the two groups were compared.

RESULTS

During lactate infusion both the seven patients who had panic attacks and the eight comparison subjects who did not responded with increased plasma concentrations of atrial natriuretic hormone, but the patients had more pronounced surges of the hormone.

CONCLUSIONS

Because atrial natriuretic hormone suppresses both pituitary ACTH and adrenal cortisol release, the authors suggest that the immediate rise of atrial natriuretic hormone explains the reported lack of pituitary-adrenocortical activation during lactate-induced panic.

Oxytocin-stimulated release of adrenocorticotropin from the rat pituitary is mediated by arginine vasopressin receptors of the V1b type

Previous work showed the existence of receptors for arginine vasopressin (AVP) in the anterior pituitary; these receptors were classified as belonging to a distinct AVP receptor subtype, referred to as AVP-V1b receptors, and are thought to mediate the well documented ACTH-releasing activity of AVP. In the present work, high affinity receptors for another neurohypophyseal hormone, oxytocin (OT), were also shown to be present within the rat anterior pituitary; to this end, [125I]d(CH2)5[Tyr(Me)2Thr4Tyr-NH2(9)]OVT was used as a ligand in receptor binding studies. Experiments on dispersed rat anterior pituitary cells in a superfusion system confirmed earlier reports that OT acts as an additional secretagogue of ACTH, with significant effects first seen at concentrations as low as 1 nM. Further studies addressed the question of whether stimulation of ACTH release is mediated by OT receptors or whether receptors for AVP (V1b receptors) might serve this role. For this, highly selective agonist and antagonist ligands of the OT receptor and nonselective agonist and antagonist ligands of the V1b receptor were employed. Neither the OT receptor agonist Thr4Gly7OT nor the OT receptor antagonist des-Gly(NH2)9d(CH2)5-[Tyr(Me)2 Thr4]OVT displayed any influence on basal ACTH release, and des-Gly(NH2)9d(CH2)5-[Tyr(Me)2Thr4]OVT did not interfere with OT-induced ACTH release; these results indicated that OT promotes ACTH release through a receptor(s) other than the OT receptor itself. Evidence for the involvement of AVP V1b receptors was provided by the observation that the AVP receptor antagonist dP[Tyr(Me2)]AVP completely abolished OT-elicited increases in ACTH release. Thus, AVP V1b receptors mediate the actions of two structurally related peptides on ACTH secretion; the role of OT receptors in adenohypophyseal function remains to be determined.

The combined dexamethasone/CRH test: a refined laboratory test for psychiatric disorders

This report summarizes our extensive experience with the application of the DEX/CRH test to assess hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-system (HPA) alteration in patients with psychiatric disorders. The application of this combined dexamethasone suppression/CRH-challenge (DEX/CRH) test requires individuals to take 1.5 mg dexamethasone (DEX) at 23:00 h orally the previous night. On the day of the test, 100 micrograms human CRH are administered to the subjects under study at 15:00 h intravenously as a bolus, and blood samples for the determination of plasma cortisol and ACTH are drawn every 15 min from 14:00 h to 18:00 h. DEX/CRH-test results from 96 patients with major depression (MDE), 11 with a manic episode (MA), 9 with panic disorder (PD), 24 with a schizophrenic psychosis (SP), and 82 healthy control subjects served as the data base for this report. Three major conclusions can be drawn from statistical analysis of these data: 1. Psychiatric patients (n = 140), regardless of diagnostic classification, release significantly more cortisol and ACTH after DEX and additional CRH in comparison with age-matched controls. This hormonal release pattern (DEX CRH-test phenomenon) supports the assumption that psychiatric patients are prone to an altered glucocorticoid feedback regulation during the acute illness episode. This supports the notion that the DEX/CRH-test phenomenon constitutes a neuroendocrine sign of these various disorders and emphasizes the usefulness of the DEX/CRH test as a laboratory test to monitor the course of these disorders. 2. The sensitivity of the DEX/CRH test for MDE (about 80%) greatly exceeds that of the standard DST (1-2 mg of DEX), which has been reported to average about 44% in a meta-analysis of the literature data; in our sample the sensitivity of the DST was about 25%. 3. The sensitivity of the DEX/CRH test can be further increased to above 90% if subjects are clustered into four different age ranges: age < 35 years, age between 35 and 50 years, age between 50 and 70 years, and age above 70 years. 4. By reducing the time points of blood sampling for ACTH and cortisol to as few as five (15:00, 15:30, 15:45, 16:00, and 16:15 h), the DEX/CRH-test procedure becomes more convenient and more easily applicable without reducing its sensitivity.

Reduced availability of milk after central injections of corticotropin-releasing hormone in lactating rats

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) plays a major role in activating the pituitary-adrenal axis in stress; its central application may therefore be expected to mimic stress. Since stress reportedly disrupts lactation, experiments were designed to study the effects of CRH administration upon the transfer of milk from rat mothers to their pups and to examine some of the possible underlying physiological mechanisms. CRH was administered intracerebroventricularly to primiparous rats on the 8th day of lactation immediately prior to being reunited with 8 of their overnight-separated pups. Changes in litter weights were measured for a period of up to 4 h as an index of milk procurement by the young (milk transfer); a qualitative assessment of maternal behaviour was also made. Treatment of dams with 0.1-1 nmol CRH resulted in a dose-dependent reduction in the amount of milk obtained by the pups. Conscious mothers treated with CRH initially showed intense behavioural activation; these events (mainly hyperlocomotion and grooming) in the mother resulted in reduced opportunities for nipple attachment by the pups and, thus, milk transfer. On the other hand, milk transfer was also significantly reduced in urethane-anaesthetized mothers treated with CRH, indicating that behavioural activation cannot have been the sole factor underlying the CRH-induced inhibition of milk transfer in awake dams. Although oxytocin (OT) release is stimulated by a variety of stressors, the possibility of an inhibitory effect of CRH upon OT secretion and/or disruption of the reflex arc serving milk ejection was considered. The peripheral administration of OT (100 mU/rat s.c.) did not, however, surmount the inhibitory actions of CRH upon milk transfer.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Calculating paternity probabilities from DNA multilocus fingerprints in some cases of deficiency

Paternity determination via DNA multilocus fingerprints in normal trio cases, namely when the fingerprints of the trio mother, child and putative father are available, is performed on a routine basis. But in cases of deficiency, where the DNA fingerprint of mother or putative father is missing, there exists no systematic, analytical way for paternity calculations, even in cases where DNA fingerprints of other persons related to the missing individual are available. The aim of this paper is to establish a mathematical, analytical background, that enables paternity calculations in cases of deficiency if complementary information can be obtained from the DNA fingerprints of at least one of the parents of the missing individual. Using the basic outline of our previously described procedure, the formulas for paternity calculations also allow mutations.

Local analgesic effect of endogenous opioid peptides

Opioids produce analgesia by interacting with local opioid receptors in peripheral inflamed tissue. This study investigated whether endogenous ligands of these receptors are present in synovia and whether such opioid peptides can inhibit pain by activation of intra-articular opioid receptors. Samples of synovium from 8 patients undergoing arthroscopic knee surgery were examined by immunohistochemistry for the presence of beta-endorphin, met-enkephalin, and dynorphin. All tissue samples showed synovitis. Inflammatory cells stained strongly for beta-endorphin and met-enkephalin but not for dynorphin. To find out whether blockade of intra-articular opioid receptors affected pain, we randomly assigned 22 patients undergoing arthroscopic knee surgery to receive naloxone (0.04 mg) intra-articularly (n = 10) or intravenously (n = 12); each patient received a placebo injection into the other site. Postoperative pain was assessed by visual analogue scale, a numerical rating scale, the McGill pain questionnaire, and supplementary analgesic consumption during the next 24 h. All pain scores were higher in the intra-articular naloxone group than in the intravenous naloxone group. The differences were significant (p < 0.05) during the first 4 h. Supplementary analgesic consumption was significantly higher in the intra-articular group (52.5 [14.0] vs 15.6 [8.0] mg diclofenac, p < 0.05). Opioid peptides are present in inflamed synovial tissue and can inhibit pain after knee surgery through an action specific to intra-articular opioid receptors. These findings expand the gate control theory of pain and suggest new approaches such as the development of peripherally acting opioid analgesics without central side-effects.

[Multi-locus DNA fingerprints using oligonucleotide probe (CAC)5/(GTG)5 in the Chinese population]

In order to test the practical applicability of oligonucleotide fingerprinting in China we have investigated unrelated individuals, family members and a pair of twins from the Beijing area using the probe (CAC)5/(GTG)5. Except for the monozygotic twins highly variable banding patterns were demonstrated as expected for the randomly selected individuals but also for the relatives. On the basis of an initial survey of 50 unrelated individuals the calculated probability for obtaining by chance two identical multilocus patterns is very small (less than 1.93 x 10(-13). Therefore it seems reasonable to conclude that like in caucasians, (CAC)5/(GTG)5 fingerprints are completely individual-specific also in this population. Therefore they have already been used successfully for identification purposes and paternity tests in many actual cases.

Analgesic effect of intraarticular morphine after arthroscopic knee surgery

BACKGROUND

Opioids can produce potent antinociceptive effects by interacting with local opioid receptors in inflamed peripheral tissue. In this study we examined the analgesic effects of the intraarticular, as compared with intravenous, administration of morphine after arthroscopic knee surgery.

METHODS

In a double-blind, randomized trial, we studied 52 patients who had received one of four injections at the end of surgery. The patients in group 1 (n = 18) received 1 mg of morphine intraarticularly and saline intravenously; those in group 2 (n = 15), saline intraarticularly and 1 mg of morphine intravenously; those in group 3 (n = 10), 0.5 mg of morphine intraarticularly and saline intravenously; and those in group 4 (n = 9), 1 mg of morphine and 0.1 mg of naloxone intraarticularly and saline intravenously. The volume of the intraarticular injections was 40 ml, and that of the intravenous injections was 1 ml. After 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 24 hours, postoperative pain was assessed with a visual-analogue scale, a numerical-rating scale, and the McGill pain questionnaire. The need for supplemental analgesic agents, the patients' vital signs, and the occurrence of side effects were monitored.

RESULTS

All pain scores were lower in group 1 than in group 2 at all times. The differences were significant (P less than 0.05) at three, four, and six hours (mean [+/- SD] visual-analogue score at six hours, 9 +/- 13 mm vs. 37 +/- 31 mm). The mean (+/- SD) consumption of supplemental analgesic medication per 24 hours was significantly lower in group 1 (36 +/- 51 mg of diclofenac and 1.2 +/- 3.4 mg of meperidine) than in group 2 (75 +/- 42 mg of diclofenac and 14 +/- 18 mg of meperidine, P less than 0.05). The visual-analogue scores in group 3 were slightly but not significantly higher than those in group 1 at all times except 6 and 24 hours after injection. The visual-analogue scores were significantly higher in group 4 than in group 1 one to four hours after injection (P less than 0.05), indicating that the analgesic effect of intraarticular morphine was reversible by naloxone.

CONCLUSIONS

Low doses of intraarticular morphine can significantly reduce pain after knee surgery through an action specific to local opioid receptors that reaches its maximal effect three to six hours after injection.

On paternity determination from multilocus DNA profiles

Various approaches have been worked out to calculate the probability of paternity from DNA multilocus profiles. Despite promising results, the application and practicability of these approaches are often restricted (due to, e.g., the equality assumption of the a priori probabilities by using Bayes' theorem, no allowance of mutations, etc). Here we present two methods for paternity determination, one of which is an extension of the well-known procedure of Evett et al. J. Forens. Sci. Soc. 1988, 28, 249-254. These methods depend on fewer assumptions and therefore may be applied to a wide spectrum of disputed paternity cases.

Treatment of benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms with carbamazepine

In 18 patients with a benzodiazepine (BZD) dependency the drug was withdrawn. The dose of BZD was gradually reduced in nine of the patients, while the others were additionally treated with carbamazepine (CBZ) for a further 15 days after BZD discontinuation. Withdrawal symptoms were assessed every third day during the study period. When comparing results in both groups, a clear trend towards less severe withdrawal symptoms could be observed in the group treated with CBZ. Some of the differences were statistically significant on days 9-12 after BZD withdrawal. Fundamental withdrawal symptoms (like hypersensitivity to sensory stimuli, abnormal perception of movement, depersonalisation or derealisation) were also less severe in the group treated with CBZ compared with the group not receiving that treatment. These findings support the results of previous reports indicating a therapeutical effect of CBZ in BZD withdrawal.

The influence of two behavioral regimens on the distribution of sleep and wakefulness in narcoleptic patients

Thirty-two hours (night-day-night) of polygraphic recordings were performed on 14 patients with a diagnosis of narcolepsy-cataplexy. Half of the patients stayed in bed during the day, whereas the other half were seated at a table. Patients were free to nap whenever they wanted to. Patients under continuous bedrest slept 2-3 times more during the day than patients who were sitting at the table. Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep and slow-wave sleep (SWS, stages 3 and 4) were nearly absent during daytime sleep in the table group, but not in the bed group. The differential behavioral regimes during the day resulted in different amounts of SWS in the consecutive night sleep. Although SWS increased from the first to the second night in the table group, it decreased in the bed group. This result suggests that the presumably homeostatic regulation of SWS is intact in narcoleptic patients.

Presynaptic auto- and allelo-receptor regulation of hypothalamic opioid peptide release

Recent studies have shown that inhibitory feedback mechanisms regulate the release of the endogenous opioid peptides beta-endorphin (acting predominantly at mu opioid receptors in the brain), dynorphin (a kappa opioid receptor ligand) and [Met]enkephalin (a delta opioid receptor ligand) from the rat hypothalamus. By using specific antagonists of the various opioid receptor types, it is shown that the release of these peptides from hypothalamic slices in vitro is not only controlled by homologous (auto)-receptors, but that cross-regulation between the three neuronal opioid receptor types also occurs; thus, the delta receptor antagonist N,N-diallyl-Tyr-Aib-Aib-Phe-Leu increases the release of all three peptides, the mu receptor antagonist D-tetrahydroisoquinoline-Cys-Tyr-D-Trp-Arg-Thr-Pen-Thr-NH2 increases that of beta-endorphin and dynorphin, and the kappa receptor antagonist nor-binaltorphimine increases that of dynorphin; all these effects occur in the presence of tetrodotoxin, indicating a presynaptic site of action. We propose the term "allelo-receptors" to describe this particular form of neuronal regulation in which an endogenous ligand, acting via its own specific receptor, also regulates the release of related peptides which activate different classes of opioid receptors.

Antinociceptive effects of mu- and kappa-agonists in inflammation are enhanced by a peripheral opioid receptor-specific mechanism

Rats received an injection of Freund's complete adjuvant into the right hindpaw and developed localized inflammation. Four to six days after inoculation, the antinociceptive effect of both the mu-agonist, morphine, and the kappa-agonist U-50,488H, administered subcutaneously, was markedly enhanced in the inflamed paws. This effect was dose dependently antagonized by low dose of intraplantar, but not subcutaneous or intravenous, (-)-naloxone. (+)-Naloxone was inactive. These data indicate that the enhanced antinociceptive effects of both agonists in inflammation are mediated by a peripheral, opioid receptor-specific mechanism.

Sociodemographic characteristics and length of psychiatric hospital stay: application of a proportional hazards model

A proportional hazards model was used to analyze effects of sociodemographic variables on length of hospital stay in psychiatric patients. Marital status and socioeconomic status had a significant influence in psychotic patients, but not in neuroses. A significant time dependency of hazard rate was also found.

Antipsychotic effect of buprenorphine in schizophrenia

The antipsychotic potency of the partial opiate agonist buprenorphine was evaluated in 10 neuroleptic-free schizophrenic patients suffering from frequent hallucinations, delusions, and severe formal thought disorders. Buprenorphine had a pronounced antipsychotic effect, which lasted about 4 hours, in patients with schizophreniform disorders (N = 4) and paranoid schizophrenia (N = 3).