Iodine content of U.S. weight-loss food

OBJECTIVE

The recommended iodine intake is 150 μg/day in adults, 220 μg/day during pregnancy, and 290 μg/day during lactation. Individuals exclusively consuming restricted diets as part of a weight-loss program may be at risk for mild to moderate iodine deficiency. The purpose of this study was to assess the iodine content in meals and snacks from 3 U.S. commercial weight-loss programs, all of which are intended to be the sole source of dietary intake during the desired weight-loss period.

METHODS

The iodine contents in the products representing 1 week of all meals and snacks from 3 U.S. commercial weight-loss programs were measured by spectrophotometry. The measured total iodine content in 1 week's worth of food from each program is reported as an average level per day.

RESULTS

A total of 53 total items were analyzed (29 different items [7 breakfasts, 7 lunches, 7 dinners, 6 snacks, 2 desserts] from Jenny Craig®, 21 different items [7 breakfasts, 7 lunches, 7 dinners] from Nutrisystem®, and 3 different items [1 breakfast, 1 lunch, 1 dinner; each to be intended to be eaten daily for 1 week] from Medifast®). Daily iodine content (mean ± SD) of meals and snacks from the weight-loss programs were 34.2 ± 1.2 (Jenny Craig®), 12.2 ± 0.7 (Nutrisystem®), and 70.1 ± 1.1 (Medifast) μg/day.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that the dietary content in the foods from 3 U.S. commercial weight-loss programs is far less than the recommendations for iodine intake of 150 μg/day in nonpregnant, nonlactating adults. Individuals following each weight-loss program should be advised to take a multivitamin containing 150 mg of iodine daily.

Thyroid Dysfunction in Children Exposed to Iodinated Contrast Media

CONTEXT

Iodinated contrast media (ICM) is routinely used in imaging studies and contains several 100-fold the recommended daily allowance of iodine.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether children exposed to ICM have a higher risk of iodine-induced thyroid dysfunction.

DESIGN

This was a single-institution case-control study, examining patients with incident thyroid dysfunction aged less than 18 years from 2001 to 2015. Cases were matched 1:1 to euthyroid controls by age, sex, and race.

SETTING

This was a single-institution case-control study occurring at tertiary care center.

PARTICIPANTS

Cases were defined as those with thyroid dysfunction (by International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision diagnosis codes and/or 2 consecutive abnormal serum TSH values <6 mo apart). We analyzed 870 cases matched to 870 controls (64% female, 51% White).

MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES

Using conditional logistic regression, the association between ICM exposure and the primary outcome, thyroid dysfunction, occurring within 2 years of exposure was assessed.

RESULTS

Sixty-nine patients received ICM, including 53 (6%) among cases and 16 (2%) among controls. The risk of incident hypothyroidism was significantly higher after ICM exposure (odds ratio 2.60; 95% confidence interval, 1.43-4.72; P < .01). The median interval between exposure and onset of hypothyroidism was 10.8 months (interquartile range, 6.6-17.9). In hypothyroid cases, the median serum TSH concentration was 6.5 mIU/L (interquartile range, 5.8-9.6).

CONCLUSIONS

ICM exposure increases the risk of incident hypothyroidism in pediatric patients. Children receiving ICM should be monitored for iodine-induced thyroid dysfunction, particularly during the first year after exposure.

Concentrations of thiocyanate and goitrin in human plasma, their precursor concentrations in brassica vegetables, and associated potential risk for hypothyroidism

Brassica vegetables are common components of the diet and have beneficial as well as potentially adverse health effects. Following enzymatic breakdown, some glucosinolates in brassica vegetables produce sulforaphane, phenethyl, and indolylic isothiocyanates that possess anticarcinogenic activity. In contrast, progoitrin and indolylic glucosinolates degrade to goitrin and thiocyanate, respectively, and may decrease thyroid hormone production. Radioiodine uptake to the thyroid is inhibited by 194 μmol of goitrin, but not by 77 μmol of goitrin. Collards, Brussels sprouts, and some Russian kale (Brassica napus) contain sufficient goitrin to potentially decrease iodine uptake by the thyroid. However, turnip tops, commercial broccoli, broccoli rabe, and kale belonging to Brassica oleracae contain less than 10 μmol of goitrin per 100-g serving and can be considered of minimal risk. Using sulforaphane plasma levels following glucoraphanin ingestion as a surrogate for thiocyanate plasma concentrations after indole glucosinolate ingestion, the maximum thiocyanate contribution from indole glucosinolate degradation is estimated to be 10 μM, which is significantly lower than background plasma thiocyanate concentrations (40-69 μM). Thiocyanate generated from consumption of indole glucosinolate can be assumed to have minimal adverse risks for thyroid health.

Gnathodiaphyseal dysplasia: report of a family with a novel mutation of the ANO5 gene

Gnathodiaphyseal dysplasia (GDD) is a rare autosomal dominant disorder characterized by florid osseous dysplasia of the jaws, bone fragility, and diaphyseal cortical thickening and bowing of long bones. We present a family with previously undiagnosed GDD. The disorder was identified by the characteristic gnathic and skeletal manifestations in the father. Clinical and radiologic examination of the patient's son also revealed the characteristic features of GDD. Gene sequencing revealed a novel mutation (c. 1067 G>A, p. Cys356 Tyr) in the ANO5 gene, which is causative for GDD. This mutation was predicted to be detrimental by computational analyses and by structural modeling of the protein. The implications for recognition and management of this disease are discussed.

HIGH PREVALENCE OF AGENT ORANGE EXPOSURE AMONG THYROID CANCER PATIENTS IN THE NATIONAL VA HEALTHCARE SYSTEM

OBJECTIVE

Thyroid cancer is the most common endocrine malignancy and the most rapidly increasing cancer in the U.S. Little is known regarding the epidemiology and characteristics of patients with thyroid cancer within the national Veterans Health Administration (VHA) integrated healthcare system. The aim of this study was to further understand the characteristics of thyroid cancer patients in the VHA population, particularly in relation to Agent Orange exposure.

METHODS

This is a descriptive analysis of the VA (Veterans Affairs) Corporate Data Warehouse database from all U.S. VHA healthcare sites from October1, 1999, to December 31, 2013. Information was extracted for all thyroid cancer patients based on International Classification of Diseases-ninth revision diagnosis codes; histologic subtypes of thyroid cancer were not available.

RESULTS

There were 19,592 patients (86% men, 76% white, 58% married, 42% Vietnam-era Veteran) in the VHA system with a diagnosis of thyroid cancer within this 14-year study period. The gender-stratified prevalence rates of thyroid cancer among the Veteran population during the study period were 1:1,114 (women) and 1:1,023 (men), which were lower for women but similar for men, when compared to the U.S. general population in 2011 (1:350 for women and 1:1,219 for men). There was a significantly higher proportion of self-reported Agent Orange exposure among thyroid cancer patients (10.0%), compared to the general VHA population (6.2%) (P<.0001).

CONCLUSION

Thyroid cancer patients, in this sample, have a higher prevalence of self-reported Agent Orange exposure compared to the overall national VA patient population.

ABBREVIATIONS

T4 = thyroxine TCDD = 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin TSH = thyroid-stimulating hormone VA = Veterans Affairs VHA = Veterans Health Administration.

Metformin Does Not Suppress Serum Thyrotropin by Increasing Levothyroxine Absorption

BACKGROUND

Levothyroxine (LT4) absorption is affected by concomitant ingestion of certain minerals, medications, and foods. It has been hypothesized that metformin may suppress serum thyrotropin (TSH) concentrations by enhancing LT4 absorption or by directly affecting the hypothalamic-pituitary axis. This study examined the effect of metformin ingestion on LT4 absorption, as assessed by serum total thyroxine (TT4) concentrations.

METHODS

A modified Food and Drug Administration LT4 bioequivalence protocol was applied to healthy, metformin-naïve, euthyroid adult volunteers. Following an overnight fast, 600 μg LT4 was administered orally. Serum TT4 concentrations were measured at baseline and at 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 4, and 6 h following LT4 administration. Measurements were performed before and after one week of metformin ingestion (850 mg three times daily). Peak serum TT4 concentrations, time to peak TT4 concentrations, and area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) were calculated.

RESULTS

Twenty-six subjects (54% men, 27% white, age 33 ± 10 years) were studied. There were no significant differences in peak serum TT4 concentrations (p = 0.13) and time to peak TT4 concentrations (p = 0.19) before and after one week of metformin use. A trend toward reduced TT4 AUC was observed after metformin ingestion (pre-metformin 3893 ± 568 μg/dL-min, post-metformin 3765 ± 588 μg/dL-min, p = 0.09).

CONCLUSIONS

LT4 absorption is unchanged by concomitant metformin ingestion. Mechanisms other than increased LT4 absorption may be responsible for the suppressed TSH concentrations observed in patients ingesting both drugs.

SERUM THYROTROPIN CONCENTRATIONS ARE NOT PREDICTIVE OF AGGRESSIVE BREAST CANCER BIOLOGY IN EUTHYROID INDIVIDUALS

OBJECTIVE

The potential influence of hypothyroidism on breast cancer remains incompletely understood. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between serum thyrotropin (thyroid-stimulating hormone, TSH) concentration and markers of aggressive breast cancer biology as defined by receptor expression profile, tumor grade, and American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) stage characteristics.

METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study of patients from 2002 to 2014. All breast cancer patients who had complete receptor (estrogen receptor, ER; progesterone receptor, PR; and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, Her2/neu) and prediagnosis serum TSH data (n = 437) were included. All patients had 1 of 6 receptor profiles: ER+ PR+ Her2/neu-, ER+ PR- Her2/neu-, ER+ PR+ Her2/neu+, ER+ PR- Her2/neu+, ER- PR- Her2/neu+, or ER- PR- Her2/neu-. Log-transformed serum TSH concentrations were analyzed using multinomial and logistic regressions to identify potential relationships with markers of breast cancer aggressiveness.

RESULTS

Increasing serum TSH concentration was associated with a lower probability of having the receptor expression profile ER+ PR+ Her2/neu+ compared to patients with the ER+ PR+ Her2/neu- profile (odds ratio [OR] = 0.52, P = .0045). No significant associations between other receptor expression profiles and serum TSH concentration were found. All time-weighted and unweighted median serum TSH concentrations were within normal limits. No significant associations between serum TSH concentration and tumor grade, overall AJCC stage, tumor size (T), lymph node positivity (N), or presence of metastasis (M) were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum TSH was not associated with markers of breast cancer aggressiveness in our cohort.

Urinary iodine excretion and serum thyroid function in adults after iodinated contrast administration

BACKGROUND

Iodinated contrast media (ICM) is a source of excess iodine that may induce thyroid dysfunction. A prospective cohort study was conducted to assess the effects of ICM on urinary iodine clearance and serum thyroid function tests (TFTs) in adults.

METHODS

In this prospective cohort study of 54 adults undergoing elective computed tomography (CT) scans at an academic medical center, serial urinary iodine concentrations (UIC) and serum TFTs were obtained until UIC normalized following ICM administration. Thyroid volume/nodularity were assessed by ultrasound. Associations between covariates and peak UIC, duration for UIC to peak and normalize, and thyroid dysfunction risk were assessed.

RESULTS

The mean±standard deviation (SD) iodine administered was 34.6±6.0 g. Baseline median (range) UIC was 105.1 (17.0-866.1) μg/L, and serum thyrotropin (TSH) concentration was 1.26 (0.5-11.2) mIU/L. The mean±SD times to achieve peak UIC (median [range]: 3519 [233-157,500] μg/L] and normalized UIC were 1.1±0.5 and 5.2±4.0 weeks, respectively. Four subjects had elevated baseline TSH, and one had missing baseline TSH values. Of the remaining 49 subjects, 11 (22%) developed an abnormal TSH within one to four weeks (six elevated and five decreased). Administered iodine amount correlated with peak UIC following ICM administration (p<0.001). Increasing age and administered iodine amount predicted peak UIC (p=0.024 and p<0.001, respectively). Age, sex, race/ethnicity, smoking status, family history of thyroid disease, personal or family history of thyroid autoimmunity, thyroid volume, presence of thyroid nodules ≥1 cm, iodine dose, baseline UIC, and baseline TFTs were not predictive of durations to achieve peak or normalized UIC.

CONCLUSION

Peak UIC occurred at 1.1 weeks and normalized by 5.2 weeks following ICM administration for outpatient CT scans. Because thyroid dysfunction developed in 22% of individuals following a single ICM dose, monitoring of thyroid function should be considered in at-risk patients.

A review: Radiographic iodinated contrast media-induced thyroid dysfunction

CONTEXT

Thyroid hormone production is dependent on adequate iodine intake. Excess iodine is generally well-tolerated, but thyroid dysfunction can occur in susceptible individuals after excess iodine exposure. Radiological iodinated contrast media represent an increasingly common source of excess iodine.

OBJECTIVE

This review will discuss the thyroidal response after acute exposure to excess iodine; contrast iodine-induced thyroid dysfunction; risks of iodine-induced thyroid dysfunction in vulnerable populations, such as the fetus, neonate, and patients with impaired renal function; and recommendations for the assessment and treatment of contrast iodine-induced thyroid dysfunction.

METHODS

Data for this review were identified by searching PubMed, Google Scholar, and references from relevant articles from 1948 to 2014.

CONCLUSIONS

With the increase in the use of computed tomography scans in the United States, there is increasing risk of contrast-induced thyroid dysfunction. Patients at risk of developing iodine-induced thyroid dysfunction should be closely monitored after receiving iodinated contrast media and should be treated as needed.

Reproductive outcomes and nononcologic complications after radioactive iodine ablation for well-differentiated thyroid cancer

BACKGROUND

Radioactive iodine (RAI) ablation is frequently performed after initial surgery for well-differentiated thyroid cancer (WDTC). We examined the frequency and timing of childbirth as well as nononcologic complications after RAI ablation for WDTC on a population level.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study of 25,333 patients (18,850 women) with WDTC was performed using the California Cancer Registry and California Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development database, 1999-2008. The primary outcomes were birthrate and median time to first live birth among women of childbearing age. Secondary outcomes were nononcologic diagnoses occurring outside the acute setting (>30 days) after ablation.

RESULTS

RAI ablation did not affect birthrate among women in the full dataset. However, in subgroup analyses, birthrate among women age 35-39 was significantly decreased in those who received RAI versus those who did not (11.5 versus 16.3 births per 1000 woman-years, p<0.001). Median time to first live birth after diagnosis of WDTC was prolonged among women who received RAI compared to those who did not (34.5 versus 26.1 months; p<0.0001). When 5-year age groups were examined individually, delay to first live birth was observed in women age 20-39 (p<0.05). This remained significant after adjustment for tumor characteristics, socioeconomic status, and marital status. The only nononcologic, nonreproductive adverse effect associated with RAI ablation was an increased rate of nasolacrimal stenosis (RR 3.44, p<0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

RAI ablation is associated with delayed childbearing in women across most of the reproductive lifespan, and with decreased birthrate in the late reproductive years. The underlying mechanism likely involves physician recommendation to delay pregnancy, as well as a potential impact of RAI on both reproductive choice and reproductive health. Further investigation is merited.

Thyrotoxicosis of Pregnancy

Thyrotoxicosis presenting during pregnancy is a common clinical problem and can be challenging to differentiate between physiologic patterns of thyroid dysfunction during gestation and intrinsic hyperthyroidism. This review provides a summary of the differential diagnosis, clinical presentation, diagnostic options, potential adverse effects of maternal thyrotoxicosis to the fetus, and treatment recommendations for thyrotoxicosis arising in pregnancy.

Iodine-induced hypothyroidism in full-term infants with congenital heart disease: more common than currently appreciated?

CONTEXT

Iodine is a micronutrient essential for thyroid hormone synthesis. Thyroid hormone is critical for normal neurocognitive development in young infants, and even transient hypothyroidism can cause adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. Both iodine deficiency and excess can cause hypothyroidism. Although iodine-induced hypothyroidism is well recognized in premature infants, full-term neonates have received less attention. Infants with congenital heart disease (CHD) are commonly exposed to excess iodine from administration of iodinated contrast agents during cardiac catheterization as well as topical application of iodine-containing antiseptics and dressings; hence, this is a vulnerable population.

OBJECTIVE

We report three cases of iodine-induced hypothyroidism in full-term neonates with CHD after cardiac angiography and topical application of iodine-containing antiseptics and dressings in the operative setting.

RESULTS

Three neonates with CHD and normal thyroid function at birth developed hypothyroidism after exposure to excess iodine. Two of these infants had transient hypothyroidism, and one had severe hypothyroidism requiring ongoing thyroid replacement therapy. All infants were asymptomatic, with hypothyroidism detected incidentally in the inpatient setting due to repeat newborn screening mandated by the long duration of hospitalization in these infants.

CONCLUSIONS

Iodine-induced hypothyroidism may be under-recognized in infants with CHD exposed to excess iodine. Systematic monitoring of thyroid function should be considered to avoid potential long-term adverse neurodevelopmental effects of even transient thyroid dysfunction in this susceptible population.

Environmental perchlorate exposure: potential adverse thyroid effects

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review will present a general overview of the sources, human studies, and proposed regulatory action regarding environmental perchlorate exposure.

RECENT FINDINGS

Some recent studies have reported significant associations between urinary perchlorate concentrations, thyroid dysfunction, and decreased infant intelligence quotient in groups who would be particularly susceptible to perchlorate effects. An update regarding the recently proposed regulatory actions and potential costs surrounding amelioration of perchlorate contamination is provided.

SUMMARY

The potential adverse thyroidal effects of environmental perchlorate exposure remain controversial, and further research is needed to further define its relationship to human health among pregnant and lactating women and their infants.

No difference in urinary iodine concentrations between Boston-area breastfed and formula-fed infants

BACKGROUND

Thyroid hormone is essential for normal mental and physical development in infancy and childhood and is dependent on adequate iodine intake. During the first few months of life, infants are reliant on breastmilk and/or infant formula as their sole sources of dietary iodine. The iodine status of U.S. infants has not been well studied.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study of 95 breastfed and/or formula-fed infants less than 3 months of age in the Boston area. We measured iodine content from infants' single spot urine samples and assessed associations with infant feeding type as well as maternal demographic data, salt and multivitamin use, smoking status, and diet.

RESULTS

The median infant urine iodine concentration was 197.5 μg/L (range 40-897.5 μg/L). Median infant urine iodine concentrations were similar between infants who were exclusively breastfed (n=39, 203.5 μg/L; range 61.5-395.5 μg/L), formula-fed (n=44, 182.5 μg/L; range 40-897.5 μg/L), and mixed (n=10, 197.8 μg/L; range 123-592.5) (p=0.88). There were no significant correlations of infant urinary iodine with maternal salt or multivitamin use (regularly or in the past 24 hours), active or secondhand cigarette smoke exposures, infant weight, infant length, or recent maternal ingestion of common iodine-containing foods, although the correlations with iodine-containing foods are difficult to accurately determine due to the small sample sizes of these variables.

CONCLUSIONS

Both breastfed and formula-fed infants less than 3 months of age in the Boston area were generally iodine sufficient. Larger studies are needed to confirm these observations among infants nationwide and elucidate other factors that may contribute to infant iodine nutrition.

Long-term efficacy of modified-release recombinant human thyrotropin augmented radioiodine therapy for benign multinodular goiter: results from a multicenter, international, randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-selection study

BACKGROUND

Enhanced reduction of multinodular goiter (MNG) can be achieved by stimulation with recombinant human thyrotropin (rhTSH) before radioiodine ((131)I) therapy. The objective was to compare the long-term efficacy and safety of two low doses of modified release rhTSH (MRrhTSH) in combination with (131)I therapy.

METHODS

In this phase II, single-blinded, placebo-controlled study, 95 patients (57.2 ± 9.6 years old, 85% women, 83% Caucasians) with MNG (median size 96.0 mL; range 31.9-242.2 mL) were randomized to receive placebo (n=32), 0.01 mg MRrhTSH (n=30), or 0.03 mg MRrhTSH (n=33) 24 hours before a calculated (131)I activity. Thyroid volume (TV) and smallest cross-sectional area of trachea (SCAT) were measured (by computed tomography scan) at baseline, six months, and 36 months. Thyroid function and quality of life (QoL) was evaluated at three-month and yearly intervals respectively.

RESULTS

At six months, TV reduction was enhanced in the 0.03 mg MRrhTSH group (32.9% vs. 23.1% in the placebo group; p=0.03) but not in the 0.01 mg MRrhTSH group. At 36 months, the mean percent TV reduction from baseline was 44 ± 12.7% (SD) in the placebo group, 41 ± 21.0% in the 0.01 mg MRrhTSH group, and 53 ± 18.6% in the 0.03 mg MRrhTSH group, with no statistically significant differences among the groups, p=0.105. In the 0.03 mg MRrhTSH group, the subset of patients with basal (131)I uptake <20% had a 24% greater TV reduction at 36 months than the corresponding subset of patients in the placebo group (p=0.01). At 36 months, the largest relative increase in SCAT was observed in the 0.03 mg MRrhTSH group (13.4 ± 23.2%), but this was not statistically different from the increases observed in the placebo or the 0.01 mg MRrhTSH group (p=0.15). Goiter-related symptoms were reduced and QoL improved, without any enhanced benefit from using MRrhTSH. At three years, the prevalence of permanent hypothyroidism was 13%, 33%, and 45% in the placebo, 0.01 mg, and 0.03 mg MRrhTSH groups respectively. The overall safety profile of the study was favorable.

CONCLUSIONS

When used as adjuvant to (131)I, enhanced MNG reduction could not be demonstrated with MRrhTSH doses ≤ 0.03 mg, indicating that the lower threshold for efficacy is around this level.

Consequences of excess iodine

Iodine is a micronutrient that is essential for the production of thyroid hormones. The primary source of iodine is the diet via consumption of foods that have been fortified with iodine, including salt, dairy products and bread, or that are naturally abundant in the micronutrient, such as seafood. Recommended daily iodine intake is 150 µg in adults who are not pregnant or lactating. Ingestion of iodine or exposure above this threshold is generally well-tolerated. However, in certain susceptible individuals, including those with pre-existing thyroid disease, the elderly, fetuses and neonates, or patients with other risk factors, the risk of developing iodine-induced thyroid dysfunction might be increased. Hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism as a result of supraphysiologic iodine exposure might be either subclinical or overt, and the source of the excess iodine might not be readily apparent.

Updates on the management of diabetes in dialysis patients

Diabetes mellitus is the leading cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) in the U.S. and many countries globally. The role of improved glycemic control in ameliorating the exceedingly high mortality risk of diabetic dialysis patients is unclear. The treatment of diabetes in ESRD patients is challenging, given changes in glucose homeostasis, the unclear accuracy of glycemic control metrics, and the altered pharmacokinetics of glucose-lowering drugs by kidney dysfunction, the uremic milieu, and dialysis therapy. Up to one-third of diabetic dialysis patients may experience spontaneous resolution of hyperglycemia with hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels <6%, a phenomenon known as "Burnt-Out Diabetes," which remains with unclear biologic plausibility and undetermined clinical implications. Conventional methods of glycemic control assessment are confounded by the laboratory abnormalities and comorbidities associated with ESRD. Similar to more recent approaches in the general population, there is concern that glucose normalization may be harmful in ESRD patients. There is uncertainty surrounding the optimal glycemic target in this population, although recent epidemiologic data suggest that HbA1c ranges of 6% to 8%, as well as 7% to 9%, are associated with increased survival rates among diabetic dialysis patients. Lastly, many glucose-lowering drugs and their active metabolites are renally metabolized and excreted, and hence, require dose adjustment or avoidance in dialysis patients.