Inactivation of E2f1 enhances tumorigenesis in a Myc transgenic model

Previous studies have demonstrated both oncogenic and tumor suppressive properties for the E2F1 transcription factor. In this study, E2f1-null mice were crossed with transgenic mice expressing Myc under the control of an epithelial-specific keratin 5 promoter to determine whether the absence of E2F1 would modulate the oncogenic activity of Myc. Inactivation of E2f1 was found to significantly accelerate tumor development in keratin 5 Myc transgenic mice. Acceleration of tumorigenesis occurred despite the fact that apoptosis levels were increased in transgenic tissue and tumors null for E2f1, whereas Myc-induced proliferation was unaffected by the status of E2f1. These findings provide new insight into the tumor suppressive activity of E2F1 and identify for the first time a specific oncogenic alteration that cooperates with the loss of E2F1 in tumorigenesis.

ARF differentially modulates apoptosis induced by E2F1 and Myc

The ARF tumor suppressor participates in a p53-dependent apoptotic pathway that is stimulated in response to some oncogenic stimuli. The E2F1 transcription factor is a critical downstream target of the Rb tumor suppressor and, when active, can promote proliferation as well as apoptosis. The finding that E2F1 transcriptionally regulates the ARF gene has led to the suggestion that ARF contributes to E2F1-induced apoptosis. Counter to this hypothesis, this study demonstrates not only that ARF is unnecessary for E2F1 to induce apoptosis but also that inactivation of ARF actually enhances the ability of E2F1 to promote apoptosis. Inactivation of ARF also cooperates with E2F1 activity to promote entry into the S phase of the cell cycle. This relationship between ARF and E2F1 is demonstrated in transgenic epidermis in vivo and in mouse embryo fibroblast cultures in vitro. In contrast, the ability of Myc to induce apoptosis is diminished in the absence of ARF. E2F1 induces the accumulation of p53 in the absence of ARF, and this is associated with the phosphorylation of p53 on several residues. These findings demonstrate that ARF is a negative regulator of E2F1 activity and is not required for E2F1-induced apoptosis.

Comparison of urine to sweat patch test results in court ordered testing

A former cocaine and methamphetamine abuser was continuously monitored with both sweat patch and urine testing for approximately 6 months. Thirteen sweat patches were applied and collected, five were positive for cocaine and/or methamphetamine, but all the urine specimens collected were negative at the analytical cut-off levels. The high incidence of false positive sweat patch tests in relation to the sensitivity, specificity, and efficiency of the sweat patch assay is discussed. Possible mechanisms, which can lead to false positive results, are presented. The results of our study raise further questions about the preferential use of the sweat patch in detecting new episodes of drug use in formerly chronic drug users.

Drugs in postmortem adipose tissues: evidence of antemortem deposition

INTRODUCTION

Drug concentration measured in postmortem adipose tissue may or may not reflect antemortem concentration. To examine the possibility of whether the presence of basic drugs in adipose tissue is the result of postmortem change, we examined: tissues with and without livor mortis, concentration gradients within the adipose layer, and the stability of drug concentrations during the postmortem period.

CASE REPORTS

Five drug-related deaths with case histories and analytical data are presented. Adipose tissues with and without livor mortis from the thigh area of the same decedent were analyzed for cocaine. The cocaine concentration of the tissue exhibiting 4+ livor was equivalent to the concentration observed in tissue without livor. Analyses of cross sections of adipose tissues containing cocaine and methamphetamine disclosed that drug concentrations were equally distributed throughout the layer, from just beneath the dermis to directly above the muscle. When morphine and temazepam concentrations were measured in adipose tissues collected from similar sites, but at different times, from the same cadaver, they remained essentially the same over 3 days (approximately 80 h).

CONCLUSIONS

Since concentrations were the same in areas with and without livor mortis, the possibility of redistribution into adipose from blood or vascular channels is eliminated. The absence of a concentration gradient within the adipose layer rules out diffusion or permeation from muscle into the adipose layer, and the failure of morphine or temazepam concentration to change over time indicates that drugs in the adipose tissue are stable during the postmortem interval. Our findings support the notion that drugs identified in postmortem adipose tissue are there because of antemortem deposition and not because of any postmortem change or event.

Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel mouse epidermal differentiation gene and its promoter

The transcription factor E2F1 is an important regulator of cell proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation. A novel mouse gene (Eig3) was originally identified as up-regulated in E2F1-overexpressing keratinocytes by the rapid analysis of gene expression technique. An apparently full-length cDNA and a 2.8-kb genomic fragment containing the entire gene have been cloned. Sequence comparisons suggest that Eig3 is homologous to a human epidermal differentiation gene, XP5, and belongs to a family of at least 10 murine genes that are related to the small proline-rich genes involved in skin differentiation. Eig3 was expressed in adult mouse stomach and epidermis and overexpressed in keratinocytes transgenic for E2F1 or E2F4, but not in c-myc transgenics. Interestingly, Eig3 expression was highly increased in mouse skin papillomas but not in squamous carcinomas. Since there is no E2F consensus binding sequence in the promoter or first intron of Eig3, E2F regulation may be indirect.

Tonic sympathetic support of metabolic rate is attenuated with age, sedentary lifestyle, and female sex in healthy adults

We recently demonstrated in young adult humans that the sympathetic nervous system contributes to the control of resting metabolic rate via tonic beta-adrenergic receptor stimulation. In the present follow-up study we determined the respective effects of age, habitual exercise status, and sex on this regulatory mechanism. Resting metabolic rate (ventilated hood, indirect calorimetry) was determined in 55 healthy sedentary or endurance exercise-trained adults, aged 18-35 or 60-75 yr (29 men and 26 women), before (baseline) and during the infusion of either a nonselective beta-adrenergic receptor antagonist (propranolol) or saline (control). Relative to baseline values, during beta-adrenergic receptor antagonism resting metabolic rate adjusted for fat-free mass was reduced to a lesser extent in older (mean +/- SE, -130 +/- 46 kJ/d) compared with young (-297 +/- 46) adults, sedentary (-151 +/- 50) compared with endurance exercise-trained (-268 +/- 46) adults, and women (-105 +/- 33) compared with men (-318 +/- 50; all P < 0.01). Reductions in resting metabolic rate during beta-adrenergic receptor antagonism were positively related to higher baseline resting metabolic rate and plasma catecholamine concentrations and negatively related to adiposity (all P < 0.05). Resting metabolic rate was unchanged in response to saline control in all groups. These results provide experimental support for the hypothesis that aging, sedentary living, and female sex are associated with attenuated sympathetic nervous system support of resting metabolic rate in healthy adult humans.

Myc lacks E2F1's ability to suppress skin carcinogenesis

Myc and E2F1 can each stimulate proliferation, induce apoptosis, and contribute to oncogenic transformation. However, only E2F1 has been shown to have a tumor suppressive activity under some conditions. To examine the potential of Myc to suppress tumorigenesis under one of the conditions in which E2F1 functions to suppress tumorigenesis, transgenic mice expressing Myc under the control of a keratin 5 (K5) promoter were generated. Like K5 E2F1 transgenic mice, K5 Myc transgenic mice have hyperplastic and hyperproliferative epidermis and develop spontaneous tumors in the skin and oral epithelium. In addition, K5 Myc and K5 E2F1 transgenic mice both display aberrant, p53-dependent apoptosis in the epidermis. It has been demonstrated that deregulated expression of E2F1 in the epidermis of transgenic mice inhibits tumorigenesis in a two-stage skin carcinogenesis assay. In sharp contrast to those results, deregulated expression of Myc in the epidermis of transgenic mice resulted in an enhanced response to two-stage skin carcinogenesis. We conclude that while Myc and E2F1 have similar proliferative, apoptotic and oncogenic properties in mouse epidermis, Myc lacks E2F1's tumor suppressive property. This suggests that E2F1's unique ability to inhibit skin carcinogenesis is not simply a consequence of promoting p53-dependent apoptosis.

Deregulated expression of DP1 induces epidermal proliferation and enhances skin carcinogenesis

E2F transcription factors have been implicated in several cellular processes, including proliferation, apoptosis, and oncogenic transformation. A functional E2F factor consists of a heterodimer containing an E2F polypeptide (E2F1-E2F6) and a DRTF1-polypeptide (DRTF1-polypeptide-1 (DP1) or DRTF1-polypeptide-2). It is the E2F subunit that supplies the transcriptional activation domain and the motif involved in binding to members of the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor family. The role of the DP subunit in regulating E2F-dependent activities is not completely understood. To examine the properties of DP1 in vivo, we generated transgenic mouse lines expressing DP1 under the control of a keratin 5 (K5) promoter. Overexpression of DP1 in basal layer keratinocytes caused mild hyperplasia and hyperproliferation of the epidermis but did not result in increased apoptosis or spontaneous tumor development. Coexpression of DP1 with E2F1 or E2F4 in the epidermis of bigenic mice modestly enhanced proliferation and apoptosis over the levels induced by E2F1 or E2F4 expression alone. In a two-stage chemical carcinogenesis assay, more and larger skin tumors developed in K5 DP1 transgenic mice than in nontransgenic mice. These findings show that in this in vivo model, deregulated expression of DP1 on its own induced proliferation and enhanced carcinogenesis.

E2F-1 gene transfer enhances invasiveness of human head and neck carcinoma cell lines

The transcription factor E2F-1, a downstream regulator of the p16-cyclinD-Rb pathway, is required for cell cycle progression. Evidence shows that overexpression of E2F-1 can either promote or inhibit development of tumors, depending on tissue or experimental conditions. To study whether the E2F-1 gene plays a role in tumor progression, the expression of E2F-1 protein was evaluated in 10 human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cell lines using Western blot analysis. In addition, the invasive ability of these cell lines was determined by evaluating the penetration of cell lines into the tracheal wall in an in vivo invasion assay using deepithelialized tracheas transplanted into the s.c. tissue of Scid mice. This study showed that the aggressive cell lines had higher expression of E2F-1 than the less invasive cell lines. To evaluate the hypothesis that E2F-1 enhances invasiveness, we selected two cell lines, SCC9 and SCC12, for a gene transfer experiment. These cell lines exhibited low invasive ability with low expression of E2F-1. Two stable clones with overexpression of transfected E2F-1 gene and two clones with their respective vector-alone control were selected from each cell line for in vivo invasion evaluation. The clones containing the transfected E2F-1 gene had significantly higher invasive ability than their respective vector-alone clones. Flow cytometry showed that parental, transfected E2F-1, and vector-alone cells had a similar proliferation pattern under normal culture conditions. Nevertheless, transfected E2F-1 cells exhibited a higher portion of cells in S phase than the control cells after serum-starvation and refeeding. The results indicated that overexpression of E2F-1 plays a positive role in cell cycle reentry from quiescence and is associated with increased in vivo invasiveness.

Effects of pulsatile intravenous insulin therapy on the progression of diabetic nephropathy

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of pulsatile intravenous insulin therapy (PIVIT) on the progression of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM). This 18-month multicenter, prospective, controlled study involved 49 type 1 DM patients with nephropathy who were following the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) intensive therapy (IT) regimen. Of these, 26 patients formed the control group (C), which continued on IT, while 23 patients formed the treatment group (T) and underwent, in addition to IT, weekly PIVIT. Blood pressure in all patients was maintained below 140/90 mm Hg on antihypertensive medication, preferentially using angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. All study patients were seen in the clinic weekly for 18 months, had monthly glycohemoglobin (HbA1c), and every 3 months, 24-hour urinary protein excretion and creatinine clearance (CrCl) determinations. The HbA1c levels declined from 8.61% +/- 0.33% to 7.68% +/- 0.31% (P = .0028) in the T group and from 9.13% +/- 0.36% to 8.19% +/- 0.33% (P = .0015) in the C group during the study period. CrCl declined significantly in both groups, as expected, but the rate of CrCl decline in the T group (2.21 +/- 1.62 mL/min/yr) was significantly less than in the C group (7.69 +/- 1.88 mL/min/yr, P = .0343). We conclude that when PIVIT is added to IT in type 1 DM patients with overt nephropathy, it appears to markedly reduce the progression of diabetic nephropathy. The effect appears independent of ACE inhibitor therapy, blood pressure, or glycemic control.

cis-Dichloro(dimethyl sulfoxide-S)(2-methoxypyridine-N)platinum(II)

The title complex, [PtCl(2)(C(6)H(7)NO)(C(2)H(6)OS)], exhibits square-planar geometry. The plane of the pyridine ring makes a dihedral angle of 67.2 (3) degrees with the square plane of the metal center. The S-O bond is nearly aligned with the adjacent Pt-N bond, leaving the methyl groups of the dimethyl sulfoxide ligand to stagger the Pt-Cl bond.

Zinc finger structures in the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 nucleocapsid protein facilitate efficient minus- and plus-strand transfer

The nucleocapsid protein (NC) of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) has two zinc fingers, each containing the invariant metal ion binding residues CCHC. Recent reports indicate that mutations in the CCHC motifs are deleterious for reverse transcription in vivo. To identify reverse transcriptase (RT) reactions affected by such changes, we have probed zinc finger functions in NC-dependent RT-catalyzed HIV-1 minus- and plus-strand transfer model systems. Our approach was to examine the activities of wild-type NC and a mutant in which all six cysteine residues were replaced by serine (SSHS NC); this mutation severely disrupts zinc coordination. We find that the zinc fingers contribute to the role of NC in complete tRNA primer removal from minus-strand DNA during plus-strand transfer. Annealing of the primer binding site sequences in plus-strand strong-stop DNA [(+) SSDNA] to its complement in minus-strand acceptor DNA is not dependent on NC zinc fingers. In contrast, the rate of annealing of the complementary R regions in (-) SSDNA and 3' viral RNA during minus-strand transfer is approximately eightfold lower when SSHS NC is used in place of wild-type NC. Moreover, unlike wild-type NC, SSHS NC has only a small stimulatory effect on minus-strand transfer and is essentially unable to block TAR-induced self-priming from (-) SSDNA. Our results strongly suggest that NC zinc finger structures are needed to unfold highly structured RNA and DNA strand transfer intermediates. Thus, it appears that in these cases, zinc finger interactions are important components of NC nucleic acid chaperone activity.

E2F4 and E2F1 have similar proliferative properties but different apoptotic and oncogenic properties in vivo

Loss of retinoblastoma (Rb) tumor suppressor function, as occurs in many cancers, leads to uncontrolled proliferation, an increased propensity to undergo apoptosis, and tumorigenesis. Rb negatively regulates multiple E2F transcription factors, but the role of the different E2F family members in manifesting the cellular response to Rb inactivation is unclear. To study the effect of deregulated E2F4 activity on cell growth control and tumorigenesis, transgenic mouse lines expressing the E2F4 gene under the control of a keratin 5 (K5) promoter were developed, and their phenotypes were compared to those of previously generated K5 E2F1 transgenic mice. In contrast to what has been observed in vitro, ectopically expressed E2F4 was found to localize to the nucleus and induce proliferation to an extent similar to that induced by E2F1 in transgenic tissue. Unlike E2F1, E2F4 does not induce apoptosis, and this correlates with the differential abilities of these two E2F species to stimulate p19(ARF) expression in vivo. To examine the role of E2F4 in tumor development, the mouse skin two-stage carcinogenesis model was utilized. Unlike E2F1 transgenic mice, E2F4 transgenic mice developed skin tumors with a decreased latency and increased incidence compared to those characteristics in wild-type controls. These findings demonstrate that while the effects of E2F1 and E2F4 on cell proliferation in vivo are similar, their apoptotic and oncogenic properties are quite different.

The paradox of E2F1: oncogene and tumor suppressor gene

Cancer cells often contain mutations that lead to the loss of retinoblastoma tumor suppressor (Rb) function and the activation of E2F-dependent transcription. As a result, proliferation is deregulated, and sensitivity to apoptotic stimuli is increased. In cell culture studies, the transcription factor E2F1 has been shown to be equally adept at inducing proliferation and apoptosis. Several groups using mouse models have been examining how these E2F1-regulated processes impact the development of cancer. The conclusion from these studies is that E2F1 can function as both oncogene and tumor suppressor gene and that both positive and negative effects on tumorigenesis can be observed whether E2F1 is absent or overexpressed. These findings are discussed in the context of a model in which pathways controlling cell-cycle progression and apoptosis are intimately linked.

Regulation of BRCA1 expression by the Rb-E2F pathway

Inheritance of a mutant allele of the breast cancer susceptibility gene BRCA1 confers increased risk of developing breast and ovarian cancers. Likewise, inheritance of a mutant allele of the retinoblastoma susceptibility gene (RB1) results in the development of retinoblastoma and/or osteosarcoma, and both alleles are often mutated or inactivated in sporadic forms of these and other cancers. We now demonstrate that the product of the RB1 gene, Rb, regulates the expression of the murine Brca1 and human BRCA1 genes through its ability to modulate E2F transcriptional activity. The Brca1 gene is identified as an in vivo target of E2F1 in a transgenic mouse model. The Brca1 promoter contains E2F DNA-binding sites that mediate transcriptional activation by E2F1 and repression by Rb. Moreover, ectopic expression of cyclin D1 and Cdk4 can stimulate the Brca1 promoter in an E2F-dependent manner, and this is inhibited by coexpression of the p16(INK4a) cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor. The human BRCA1 promoter also contains a conserved E2F site and is similarly regulated by E2F1 and Rb. This functional link between the BRCA1 and Rb tumor suppressors may provide insight into the mechanism by which BRCA1 inactivation contributes to cancer development.

New circulin macrocyclic polypeptides from Chassalia parvifolia

Four new macrocyclic polypeptides were isolated and identified from an extract of the tropical tree Chassalia parvifolia. Circulins C-F are 29-30 amino acid cyclic peptides in which the entire primary amino acid chain is covalently cyclized via peptide bonds. Their structures were deduced from a combination of FABMS analyses, N-terminal Edman degradation, endoproteinase digestion, and amino acid analyses. All the peptides share a high degree of sequence homology and contain six cysteine residues forming three intramolecular disulfide bridges. Circulins C-F inhibited the cytopathic effects of in vitro HIV-1 infection with EC(50) values of 50-275 nM.

Cycloviolins A-D, anti-HIV macrocyclic peptides from Leonia cymosa

Four novel anti-HIV macrocyclic peptides containing 28-31 amino acid residues, named cycloviolins A-D, have been isolated from the hitherto unstudied tropical plant Leonia cymosa. Their primary structure, including amino acid composition and sequence, was determined by a combination of MALDI-TOF and FAB MS and by enzymatic digestion of reduced derivatives, followed by Edman degradation and mass analyses. All of the cycloviolins contain six cysteines, which are present as three intramolecular disulfide bridges. Intriguingly, cycloviolins A-D showed high degrees of sequence homology to the known cyclopsychotride A and circulins A and B from the Rubiaceae family but much less homology to the varv peptides from Viola, a member of the same family (Violaceae).

Actin-binding cellular proteins inside human immunodeficiency virus type 1

Host proteins are incorporated both on and inside human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) virions. To identify cellular proteins inside HIV-1, virion preparations were treated by a protease-digestion technique that removes external host proteins, allowing for the study of the proteins inside the virus. Treated HIV-1 preparations were analyzed by immunoblot, high-pressure liquid chromatography, and protein sequence analyses. These analyses identified several cellular proteins inside HIV-1: elongation factor 1alpha, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, HS-1, phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein, Pin1, Lck, Nm23-H1, and the C-terminal tail of CD43. Several of these proteins were found as fragments of their full-sized proteins that appear to be generated by our protease treatment of the virions, the HIV-1 protease, or a cellular protease. Recent advances in cell biology and biochemistry have identified some of these proteins as actin-binding proteins. These results support the hypothesis that actin filaments are incorporated into the virion and may provide additional clues for the understanding of the interaction between viral and cellular proteins during assembly and budding.