1
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Giaever G, Chu AM, Ni L, Connelly C, Riles L, Véronneau S, Dow S, Lucau-Danila A, Anderson K, André B, Arkin AP, Astromoff A, El-Bakkoury M, Bangham R, Benito R, Brachat S, Campanaro S, Curtiss M, Davis K, Deutschbauer A, Entian KD, Flaherty P, Foury F, Garfinkel DJ, Gerstein M, Gotte D, Güldener U, Hegemann JH, Hempel S, Herman Z, Jaramillo DF, Kelly DE, Kelly SL, Kötter P, LaBonte D, Lamb DC, Lan N, Liang H, Liao H, Liu L, Luo C, Lussier M, Mao R, Menard P, Ooi SL, Revuelta JL, Roberts CJ, Rose M, Ross-Macdonald P, Scherens B, Schimmack G, Shafer B, Shoemaker DD, Sookhai-Mahadeo S, Storms RK, Strathern JN, Valle G, Voet M, Volckaert G, Wang CY, Ward TR, Wilhelmy J, Winzeler EA, Yang Y, Yen G, Youngman E, Yu K, Bussey H, Boeke JD, Snyder M, Philippsen P, Davis RW, Johnston M. Functional profiling of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome. Nature 2002; 418:387-91. [PMID: 12140549 DOI: 10.1038/nature00935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3148] [Impact Index Per Article: 136.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Determining the effect of gene deletion is a fundamental approach to understanding gene function. Conventional genetic screens exhibit biases, and genes contributing to a phenotype are often missed. We systematically constructed a nearly complete collection of gene-deletion mutants (96% of annotated open reading frames, or ORFs) of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. DNA sequences dubbed 'molecular bar codes' uniquely identify each strain, enabling their growth to be analysed in parallel and the fitness contribution of each gene to be quantitatively assessed by hybridization to high-density oligonucleotide arrays. We show that previously known and new genes are necessary for optimal growth under six well-studied conditions: high salt, sorbitol, galactose, pH 8, minimal medium and nystatin treatment. Less than 7% of genes that exhibit a significant increase in messenger RNA expression are also required for optimal growth in four of the tested conditions. Our results validate the yeast gene-deletion collection as a valuable resource for functional genomics.
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23 |
3148 |
2
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Winzeler EA, Shoemaker DD, Astromoff A, Liang H, Anderson K, Andre B, Bangham R, Benito R, Boeke JD, Bussey H, Chu AM, Connelly C, Davis K, Dietrich F, Dow SW, El Bakkoury M, Foury F, Friend SH, Gentalen E, Giaever G, Hegemann JH, Jones T, Laub M, Liao H, Liebundguth N, Lockhart DJ, Lucau-Danila A, Lussier M, M'Rabet N, Menard P, Mittmann M, Pai C, Rebischung C, Revuelta JL, Riles L, Roberts CJ, Ross-MacDonald P, Scherens B, Snyder M, Sookhai-Mahadeo S, Storms RK, Véronneau S, Voet M, Volckaert G, Ward TR, Wysocki R, Yen GS, Yu K, Zimmermann K, Philippsen P, Johnston M, Davis RW. Functional characterization of the S. cerevisiae genome by gene deletion and parallel analysis. Science 1999; 285:901-6. [PMID: 10436161 DOI: 10.1126/science.285.5429.901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3055] [Impact Index Per Article: 117.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The functions of many open reading frames (ORFs) identified in genome-sequencing projects are unknown. New, whole-genome approaches are required to systematically determine their function. A total of 6925 Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains were constructed, by a high-throughput strategy, each with a precise deletion of one of 2026 ORFs (more than one-third of the ORFs in the genome). Of the deleted ORFs, 17 percent were essential for viability in rich medium. The phenotypes of more than 500 deletion strains were assayed in parallel. Of the deletion strains, 40 percent showed quantitative growth defects in either rich or minimal medium.
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26 |
3055 |
3
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Costanzo M, Baryshnikova A, Bellay J, Kim Y, Spear ED, Sevier CS, Ding H, Koh JL, Toufighi K, Mostafavi S, Prinz J, St. Onge RP, VanderSluis B, Makhnevych T, Vizeacoumar FJ, Alizadeh S, Bahr S, Brost RL, Chen Y, Cokol M, Deshpande R, Li Z, Lin ZY, Liang W, Marback M, Paw J, San Luis BJ, Shuteriqi E, Hin Yan Tong A, van Dyk N, Wallace IM, Whitney JA, Weirauch MT, Zhong G, Zhu H, Houry WA, Brudno M, Ragibizadeh S, Papp B, Pál C, Roth FP, Giaever G, Nislow C, Troyanskaya OG, Bussey H, Bader GD, Gingras AC, Morris QD, Kim PM, Kaiser CA, Myers CL, Andrews BJ, Boone C. The genetic landscape of a cell. Science 2010; 327:425-31. [PMID: 20093466 PMCID: PMC5600254 DOI: 10.1126/science.1180823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1614] [Impact Index Per Article: 107.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A genome-scale genetic interaction map was constructed by examining 5.4 million gene-gene pairs for synthetic genetic interactions, generating quantitative genetic interaction profiles for approximately 75% of all genes in the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A network based on genetic interaction profiles reveals a functional map of the cell in which genes of similar biological processes cluster together in coherent subsets, and highly correlated profiles delineate specific pathways to define gene function. The global network identifies functional cross-connections between all bioprocesses, mapping a cellular wiring diagram of pleiotropy. Genetic interaction degree correlated with a number of different gene attributes, which may be informative about genetic network hubs in other organisms. We also demonstrate that extensive and unbiased mapping of the genetic landscape provides a key for interpretation of chemical-genetic interactions and drug target identification.
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research-article |
15 |
1614 |
4
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Hillenmeyer ME, Fung E, Wildenhain J, Pierce SE, Hoon S, Lee W, Proctor M, St.Onge RP, Tyers M, Koller D, Altman RB, Davis RW, Nislow C, Giaever G. The chemical genomic portrait of yeast: uncovering a phenotype for all genes. Science 2008; 320:362-5. [PMID: 18420932 PMCID: PMC2794835 DOI: 10.1126/science.1150021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 745] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Genetics aims to understand the relation between genotype and phenotype. However, because complete deletion of most yeast genes ( approximately 80%) has no obvious phenotypic consequence in rich medium, it is difficult to study their functions. To uncover phenotypes for this nonessential fraction of the genome, we performed 1144 chemical genomic assays on the yeast whole-genome heterozygous and homozygous deletion collections and quantified the growth fitness of each deletion strain in the presence of chemical or environmental stress conditions. We found that 97% of gene deletions exhibited a measurable growth phenotype, suggesting that nearly all genes are essential for optimal growth in at least one condition.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
17 |
745 |
5
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Škrtić M, Sriskanthadevan S, Jhas B, Gebbia M, Wang X, Wang Z, Hurren R, Jitkova Y, Gronda M, Maclean N, Lai CK, Eberhard Y, Bartoszko J, Spagnuolo P, Rutledge AC, Datti A, Ketela T, Moffat J, Robinson BH, Cameron JH, Wrana J, Eaves CJ, Minden MD, Wang JC, Dick JE, Humphries K, Nislow C, Giaever G, Schimmer AD. Inhibition of mitochondrial translation as a therapeutic strategy for human acute myeloid leukemia. Cancer Cell 2011; 20:674-88. [PMID: 22094260 PMCID: PMC3221282 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2011.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 506] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2011] [Revised: 09/05/2011] [Accepted: 10/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
To identify FDA-approved agents targeting leukemic cells, we performed a chemical screen on two human leukemic cell lines and identified the antimicrobial tigecycline. A genome-wide screen in yeast identified mitochondrial translation inhibition as the mechanism of tigecycline-mediated lethality. Tigecycline selectively killed leukemia stem and progenitor cells compared to their normal counterparts and also showed antileukemic activity in mouse models of human leukemia. ShRNA-mediated knockdown of EF-Tu mitochondrial translation factor in leukemic cells reproduced the antileukemia activity of tigecycline. These effects were derivative of mitochondrial biogenesis that, together with an increased basal oxygen consumption, proved to be enhanced in AML versus normal hematopoietic cells and were also important for their difference in tigecycline sensitivity.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
14 |
506 |
6
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Cheung-Ong K, Giaever G, Nislow C. DNA-damaging agents in cancer chemotherapy: serendipity and chemical biology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 20:648-59. [PMID: 23706631 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2013.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 421] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2013] [Revised: 04/02/2013] [Accepted: 04/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
DNA-damaging agents have a long history of use in cancer chemotherapy. The full extent of their cellular mechanisms, which is essential to balance efficacy and toxicity, is often unclear. In addition, the use of many anticancer drugs is limited by dose-limiting toxicities as well as the development of drug resistance. Novel anticancer compounds are continually being developed in the hopes of addressing these limitations; however, it is essential to be able to evaluate these compounds for their mechanisms of action. This review covers the current DNA-damaging agents used in the clinic, discusses their limitations, and describes the use of chemical genomics to uncover new information about the DNA damage response network and to evaluate novel DNA-damaging compounds.
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Review |
12 |
421 |
7
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Giaever G, Shoemaker DD, Jones TW, Liang H, Winzeler EA, Astromoff A, Davis RW. Genomic profiling of drug sensitivities via induced haploinsufficiency. Nat Genet 1999; 21:278-83. [PMID: 10080179 DOI: 10.1038/6791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 418] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Lowering the dosage of a single gene from two copies to one copy in diploid yeast results in a heterozygote that is sensitized to any drug that acts on the product of this gene. This haploinsufficient phenotype thereby identifies the gene product of the heterozygous locus as the likely drug target. We exploited this finding in a genomic approach to drug-target identification. Genome sequence information was used to generate molecularly tagged heterozygous yeast strains that were pooled, grown competitively in drug and analysed for drug sensitivity using high-density oligonucleotide arrays. Individual heterozygous strain analysis verified six known drug targets. Parallel analysis identified the known target and two hypersensitive loci in a mixed culture of 233 strains in the presence of the drug tunicamycin. Our discovery that both drug target and hypersensitive loci exhibit drug-induced haploinsufficiency may have important consequences in pharmacogenomics and variable drug toxicity observed in human populations.
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26 |
418 |
8
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Steinmetz LM, Scharfe C, Deutschbauer AM, Mokranjac D, Herman ZS, Jones T, Chu AM, Giaever G, Prokisch H, Oefner PJ, Davis RW. Systematic screen for human disease genes in yeast. Nat Genet 2002; 31:400-4. [PMID: 12134146 DOI: 10.1038/ng929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 405] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
High similarity between yeast and human mitochondria allows functional genomic study of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to be used to identify human genes involved in disease. So far, 102 heritable disorders have been attributed to defects in a quarter of the known nuclear-encoded mitochondrial proteins in humans. Many mitochondrial diseases remain unexplained, however, in part because only 40-60% of the presumed 700-1,000 proteins involved in mitochondrial function and biogenesis have been identified. Here we apply a systematic functional screen using the pre-existing whole-genome pool of yeast deletion mutants to identify mitochondrial proteins. Three million measurements of strain fitness identified 466 genes whose deletions impaired mitochondrial respiration, of which 265 were new. Our approach gave higher selection than other systematic approaches, including fivefold greater selection than gene expression analysis. To apply these advantages to human disorders involving mitochondria, human orthologs were identified and linked to heritable diseases using genomic map positions.
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23 |
405 |
9
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Deutschbauer AM, Jaramillo DF, Proctor M, Kumm J, Hillenmeyer ME, Davis RW, Nislow C, Giaever G. Mechanisms of haploinsufficiency revealed by genome-wide profiling in yeast. Genetics 2005; 169:1915-25. [PMID: 15716499 PMCID: PMC1449596 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.104.036871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 394] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Haploinsufficiency is defined as a dominant phenotype in diploid organisms that are heterozygous for a loss-of-function allele. Despite its relevance to human disease, neither the extent of haploinsufficiency nor its precise molecular mechanisms are well understood. We used the complete set of Saccharomyces cerevisiae heterozygous deletion strains to survey the genome for haploinsufficiency via fitness profiling in rich (YPD) and minimal media to identify all genes that confer a haploinsufficient growth defect. This assay revealed that approximately 3% of all approximately 5900 genes tested are haploinsufficient for growth in YPD. This class of genes is functionally enriched for metabolic processes carried out by molecular complexes such as the ribosome. Much of the haploinsufficiency in YPD is alleviated by slowing the growth rate of each strain in minimal media, suggesting that certain gene products are rate limiting for growth only in YPD. Overall, our results suggest that the primary mechanism of haploinsufficiency in yeast is due to insufficient protein production. We discuss the relevance of our findings in yeast to human haploinsufficiency disorders.
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Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. |
20 |
394 |
10
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Giaever G, Flaherty P, Kumm J, Proctor M, Nislow C, Jaramillo DF, Chu AM, Jordan MI, Arkin AP, Davis RW. Chemogenomic profiling: identifying the functional interactions of small molecules in yeast. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:793-8. [PMID: 14718668 PMCID: PMC321760 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0307490100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 383] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We demonstrate the efficacy of a genome-wide protocol in yeast that allows the identification of those gene products that functionally interact with small molecules and result in the inhibition of cellular proliferation. Here we present results from screening 10 diverse compounds in 80 genome-wide experiments against the complete collection of heterozygous yeast deletion strains. These compounds include anticancer and antifungal agents, statins, alverine citrate, and dyclonine. In several cases, we identified previously known interactions; furthermore, in each case, our analysis revealed novel cellular interactions, even when the relationship between a compound and its cellular target had been well established. In addition, we identified a chemical core structure shared among three therapeutically distinct compounds that inhibit the ERG24 heterozygous deletion strain, demonstrating that cells may respond similarly to compounds of related structure. The ability to identify on-and-off target effects in vivo is fundamental to understanding the cellular response to small-molecule perturbants.
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Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. |
21 |
383 |
11
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Li Z, Vizeacoumar FJ, Bahr S, Li J, Warringer J, Vizeacoumar FS, Min R, Vandersluis B, Bellay J, Devit M, Fleming JA, Stephens A, Haase J, Lin ZY, Baryshnikova A, Lu H, Yan Z, Jin K, Barker S, Datti A, Giaever G, Nislow C, Bulawa C, Myers CL, Costanzo M, Gingras AC, Zhang Z, Blomberg A, Bloom K, Andrews B, Boone C. Systematic exploration of essential yeast gene function with temperature-sensitive mutants. Nat Biotechnol 2011; 29:361-7. [PMID: 21441928 DOI: 10.1038/nbt.1832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 315] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Conditional temperature-sensitive (ts) mutations are valuable reagents for studying essential genes in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We constructed 787 ts strains, covering 497 (∼45%) of the 1,101 essential yeast genes, with ∼30% of the genes represented by multiple alleles. All of the alleles are integrated into their native genomic locus in the S288C common reference strain and are linked to a kanMX selectable marker, allowing further genetic manipulation by synthetic genetic array (SGA)-based, high-throughput methods. We show two such manipulations: barcoding of 440 strains, which enables chemical-genetic suppression analysis, and the construction of arrays of strains carrying different fluorescent markers of subcellular structure, which enables quantitative analysis of phenotypes using high-content screening. Quantitative analysis of a GFP-tubulin marker identified roles for cohesin and condensin genes in spindle disassembly. This mutant collection should facilitate a wide range of systematic studies aimed at understanding the functions of essential genes.
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Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't |
14 |
315 |
12
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Dowell RD, Ryan O, Jansen A, Cheung D, Agarwala S, Danford T, Bernstein DA, Rolfe PA, Heisler LE, Chin B, Nislow C, Giaever G, Phillips PC, Fink GR, Gifford DK, Boone C. Genotype to phenotype: a complex problem. Science 2010; 328:469. [PMID: 20413493 PMCID: PMC4412269 DOI: 10.1126/science.1189015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 310] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
We generated a high-resolution whole-genome sequence and individually deleted 5100 genes in Sigma1278b, a Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain closely related to reference strain S288c. Similar to the variation between human individuals, Sigma1278b and S288c average 3.2 single-nucleotide polymorphisms per kilobase. A genome-wide comparison of deletion mutant phenotypes identified a subset of genes that were conditionally essential by strain, including 44 essential genes unique to Sigma1278b and 13 unique to S288c. Genetic analysis indicates the conditional phenotype was most often governed by complex genetic interactions, depending on multiple background-specific modifiers. Our comprehensive analysis suggests that the presence of a complex set of modifiers will often underlie the phenotypic differences between individuals.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
15 |
310 |
13
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Fraser HB, Hirsh AE, Giaever G, Kumm J, Eisen MB. Noise minimization in eukaryotic gene expression. PLoS Biol 2004; 2:e137. [PMID: 15124029 PMCID: PMC400249 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0020137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 288] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2004] [Accepted: 03/09/2004] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
All organisms have elaborate mechanisms to control rates of protein production. However, protein production is also subject to stochastic fluctuations, or “noise.” Several recent studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia coli have investigated the relationship between transcription and translation rates and stochastic fluctuations in protein levels, or more generally, how such randomness is a function of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. However, the fundamental question of whether stochasticity in protein expression is generally biologically relevant has not been addressed, and it remains unknown whether random noise in the protein production rate of most genes significantly affects the fitness of any organism. We propose that organisms should be particularly sensitive to variation in the protein levels of two classes of genes: genes whose deletion is lethal to the organism and genes that encode subunits of multiprotein complexes. Using an experimentally verified model of stochastic gene expression in S. cerevisiae, we estimate the noise in protein production for nearly every yeast gene, and confirm our prediction that the production of essential and complex-forming proteins involves lower levels of noise than does the production of most other genes. Our results support the hypothesis that noise in gene expression is a biologically important variable, is generally detrimental to organismal fitness, and is subject to natural selection. Analysis of gene expression data for nearly every gene in yeast provides evidence that random variation in the production rate of proteins could significantly affect the fitness of an organism
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Journal Article |
21 |
288 |
14
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St Onge RP, Mani R, Oh J, Proctor M, Fung E, Davis RW, Nislow C, Roth FP, Giaever G. Systematic pathway analysis using high-resolution fitness profiling of combinatorial gene deletions. Nat Genet 2007; 39:199-206. [PMID: 17206143 PMCID: PMC2716756 DOI: 10.1038/ng1948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 249] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2006] [Accepted: 11/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Systematic genetic interaction studies have illuminated many cellular processes. Here we quantitatively examine genetic interactions among 26 Saccharomyces cerevisiae genes conferring resistance to the DNA-damaging agent methyl methanesulfonate (MMS), as determined by chemogenomic fitness profiling of pooled deletion strains. We constructed 650 double-deletion strains, corresponding to all pairings of these 26 deletions. The fitness of single- and double-deletion strains were measured in the presence and absence of MMS. Genetic interactions were defined by combining principles from both statistical and classical genetics. The resulting network predicts that the Mph1 helicase has a role in resolving homologous recombination-derived DNA intermediates that is similar to (but distinct from) that of the Sgs1 helicase. Our results emphasize the utility of small molecules and multifactorial deletion mutants in uncovering functional relationships and pathway order.
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Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't |
18 |
249 |
15
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Cokol M, Chua HN, Tasan M, Mutlu B, Weinstein ZB, Suzuki Y, Nergiz ME, Costanzo M, Baryshnikova A, Giaever G, Nislow C, Myers CL, Andrews BJ, Boone C, Roth FP. Systematic exploration of synergistic drug pairs. Mol Syst Biol 2011; 7:544. [PMID: 22068327 PMCID: PMC3261710 DOI: 10.1038/msb.2011.71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2011] [Accepted: 08/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug synergy allows a therapeutic effect to be achieved with lower doses of component drugs. Drug synergy can result when drugs target the products of genes that act in parallel pathways ('specific synergy'). Such cases of drug synergy should tend to correspond to synergistic genetic interaction between the corresponding target genes. Alternatively, 'promiscuous synergy' can arise when one drug non-specifically increases the effects of many other drugs, for example, by increased bioavailability. To assess the relative abundance of these drug synergy types, we examined 200 pairs of antifungal drugs in S. cerevisiae. We found 38 antifungal synergies, 37 of which were novel. While 14 cases of drug synergy corresponded to genetic interaction, 92% of the synergies we discovered involved only six frequently synergistic drugs. Although promiscuity of four drugs can be explained under the bioavailability model, the promiscuity of Tacrolimus and Pentamidine was completely unexpected. While many drug synergies correspond to genetic interactions, the majority of drug synergies appear to result from non-specific promiscuous synergy.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
14 |
228 |
16
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Smith AM, Heisler LE, Mellor J, Kaper F, Thompson MJ, Chee M, Roth FP, Giaever G, Nislow C. Quantitative phenotyping via deep barcode sequencing. Genome Res 2009; 19:1836-42. [PMID: 19622793 DOI: 10.1101/gr.093955.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Next-generation DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized diverse genomics applications, including de novo genome sequencing, SNP detection, chromatin immunoprecipitation, and transcriptome analysis. Here we apply deep sequencing to genome-scale fitness profiling to evaluate yeast strain collections in parallel. This method, Barcode analysis by Sequencing, or "Bar-seq," outperforms the current benchmark barcode microarray assay in terms of both dynamic range and throughput. When applied to a complex chemogenomic assay, Bar-seq quantitatively identifies drug targets, with performance superior to the benchmark microarray assay. We also show that Bar-seq is well-suited for a multiplex format. We completely re-sequenced and re-annotated the yeast deletion collection using deep sequencing, found that approximately 20% of the barcodes and common priming sequences varied from expectation, and used this revised list of barcode sequences to improve data quality. Together, this new assay and analysis routine provide a deep-sequencing-based toolkit for identifying gene-environment interactions on a genome-wide scale.
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Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't |
16 |
219 |
17
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Wall DP, Hirsh AE, Fraser HB, Kumm J, Giaever G, Eisen MB, Feldman MW. Functional genomic analysis of the rates of protein evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:5483-8. [PMID: 15800036 PMCID: PMC555735 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0501761102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolutionary rates of proteins vary over several orders of magnitude. Recent work suggests that analysis of large data sets of evolutionary rates in conjunction with the results from high-throughput functional genomic experiments can identify the factors that cause proteins to evolve at such dramatically different rates. To this end, we estimated the evolutionary rates of >3,000 proteins in four species of the yeast genus Saccharomyces and investigated their relationship with levels of expression and protein dispensability. Each protein's dispensability was estimated by the growth rate of mutants deficient for the protein. Our analyses of these improved evolutionary and functional genomic data sets yield three main results. First, dispensability and expression have independent, significant effects on the rate of protein evolution. Second, measurements of expression levels in the laboratory can be used to filter data sets of dispensability estimates, removing variates that are unlikely to reflect real biological effects. Third, structural equation models show that although we may reasonably infer that dispensability and expression have significant effects on protein evolutionary rate, we cannot yet accurately estimate the relative strengths of these effects.
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Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. |
20 |
208 |
18
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Cha JY, Han S, Hong HJ, Cho H, Kim D, Kwon Y, Kwon SK, Crüsemann M, Bok Lee Y, Kim JF, Giaever G, Nislow C, Moore BS, Thomashow LS, Weller DM, Kwak YS. Microbial and biochemical basis of a Fusarium wilt-suppressive soil. THE ISME JOURNAL 2016; 10:119-29. [PMID: 26057845 PMCID: PMC4681868 DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2015.95] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Revised: 04/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Crops lack genetic resistance to most necrotrophic pathogens. To compensate for this disadvantage, plants recruit antagonistic members of the soil microbiome to defend their roots against pathogens and other pests. The best examples of this microbially based defense of roots are observed in disease-suppressive soils in which suppressiveness is induced by continuously growing crops that are susceptible to a pathogen, but the molecular basis of most is poorly understood. Here we report the microbial characterization of a Korean soil with specific suppressiveness to Fusarium wilt of strawberry. In this soil, an attack on strawberry roots by Fusarium oxysporum results in a response by microbial defenders, of which members of the Actinobacteria appear to have a key role. We also identify Streptomyces genes responsible for the ribosomal synthesis of a novel heat-stable antifungal thiopeptide antibiotic inhibitory to F. oxysporum and the antibiotic's mode of action against fungal cell wall biosynthesis. Both classical- and community-oriented approaches were required to dissect this suppressive soil from the field to the molecular level, and the results highlight the role of natural antibiotics as weapons in the microbial warfare in the rhizosphere that is integral to plant health, vigor and development.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
9 |
208 |
19
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Birrell GW, Brown JA, Wu HI, Giaever G, Chu AM, Davis RW, Brown JM. Transcriptional response of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to DNA-damaging agents does not identify the genes that protect against these agents. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:8778-83. [PMID: 12077312 PMCID: PMC124375 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.132275199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/08/2002] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent completion of the deletion of all of the nonessential genes in budding yeast has provided a powerful new way of determining those genes that affect the sensitivity of this organism to cytotoxic agents. We have used this system to test the hypothesis that genes whose transcription is increased after DNA damage are important for the survival to that damage. We used a pool of 4,627 diploid strains each with homozygous deletion of a nonessential gene to identify those genes that are important for the survival of yeast to four DNA-damaging agents: ionizing radiation, UV radiation, and exposure to cisplatin or to hydrogen peroxide. In addition we measured the transcriptional response of the wild-type parental strain to the same DNA-damaging agents. We found no relationship between the genes necessary for survival to the DNA-damaging agents and those genes whose transcription is increased after exposure. These data show that few, if any, of the genes involved in repairing the DNA lesions produced in this study, including double-strand breaks, pyrimidine dimers, single-strand breaks, base damage, and DNA cross-links, are induced in response to toxic doses of the agents that produce these lesions. This finding suggests that the enzymes necessary for the repair of these lesions are at sufficient levels within the cell. The data also suggest that the nature of the lesions produced by DNA-damaging agents cannot easily be deduced from gene expression profiling.
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Lee AY, St Onge RP, Proctor MJ, Wallace IM, Nile AH, Spagnuolo PA, Jitkova Y, Gronda M, Wu Y, Kim MK, Cheung-Ong K, Torres NP, Spear ED, Han MKL, Schlecht U, Suresh S, Duby G, Heisler LE, Surendra A, Fung E, Urbanus ML, Gebbia M, Lissina E, Miranda M, Chiang JH, Aparicio AM, Zeghouf M, Davis RW, Cherfils J, Boutry M, Kaiser CA, Cummins CL, Trimble WS, Brown GW, Schimmer AD, Bankaitis VA, Nislow C, Bader GD, Giaever G. Mapping the cellular response to small molecules using chemogenomic fitness signatures. Science 2014; 344:208-11. [PMID: 24723613 DOI: 10.1126/science.1250217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Genome-wide characterization of the in vivo cellular response to perturbation is fundamental to understanding how cells survive stress. Identifying the proteins and pathways perturbed by small molecules affects biology and medicine by revealing the mechanisms of drug action. We used a yeast chemogenomics platform that quantifies the requirement for each gene for resistance to a compound in vivo to profile 3250 small molecules in a systematic and unbiased manner. We identified 317 compounds that specifically perturb the function of 121 genes and characterized the mechanism of specific compounds. Global analysis revealed that the cellular response to small molecules is limited and described by a network of 45 major chemogenomic signatures. Our results provide a resource for the discovery of functional interactions among genes, chemicals, and biological processes.
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Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't |
11 |
181 |
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Pierce SE, Davis RW, Nislow C, Giaever G. Genome-wide analysis of barcoded Saccharomyces cerevisiae gene-deletion mutants in pooled cultures. Nat Protoc 2007; 2:2958-74. [DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2007.427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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18 |
167 |
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Hoon S, Smith AM, Wallace IM, Suresh S, Miranda M, Fung E, Proctor M, Shokat KM, Zhang C, Davis RW, Giaever G, St Onge RP, StOnge RP, Nislow C. An integrated platform of genomic assays reveals small-molecule bioactivities. Nat Chem Biol 2008; 4:498-506. [PMID: 18622389 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2008] [Accepted: 06/16/2008] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Bioactive compounds are widely used to modulate protein function and can serve as important leads for drug development. Identifying the in vivo targets of these compounds remains a challenge. Using yeast, we integrated three genome-wide gene-dosage assays to measure the effect of small molecules in vivo. A single TAG microarray was used to resolve the fitness of strains derived from pools of (i) homozygous deletion mutants, (ii) heterozygous deletion mutants and (iii) genomic library transformants. We demonstrated, with eight diverse reference compounds, that integration of these three chemogenomic profiles improves the sensitivity and specificity of small-molecule target identification. We further dissected the mechanism of action of two protein phosphatase inhibitors and in the process developed a framework for the rational design of multidrug combinations to sensitize cells with specific genotypes more effectively. Finally, we applied this platform to 188 novel synthetic chemical compounds and identified both potential targets and structure-activity relationships.
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Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't |
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163 |
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Ryan O, Shapiro RS, Kurat CF, Mayhew D, Baryshnikova A, Chin B, Lin ZY, Cox MJ, Vizeacoumar F, Cheung D, Bahr S, Tsui K, Tebbji F, Sellam A, Istel F, Schwarzmüller T, Reynolds TB, Kuchler K, Gifford DK, Whiteway M, Giaever G, Nislow C, Costanzo M, Gingras AC, Mitra RD, Andrews B, Fink GR, Cowen LE, Boone C. Global gene deletion analysis exploring yeast filamentous growth. Science 2012; 337:1353-6. [PMID: 22984072 DOI: 10.1126/science.1224339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/18/2024]
Abstract
The dimorphic switch from a single-cell budding yeast to a filamentous form enables Saccharomyces cerevisiae to forage for nutrients and the opportunistic pathogen Candida albicans to invade human tissues and evade the immune system. We constructed a genome-wide set of targeted deletion alleles and introduced them into a filamentous S. cerevisiae strain, Σ1278b. We identified genes involved in morphologically distinct forms of filamentation: haploid invasive growth, biofilm formation, and diploid pseudohyphal growth. Unique genes appear to underlie each program, but we also found core genes with general roles in filamentous growth, including MFG1 (YDL233w), whose product binds two morphogenetic transcription factors, Flo8 and Mss11, and functions as a critical transcriptional regulator of filamentous growth in both S. cerevisiae and C. albicans.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
13 |
163 |
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Birrell GW, Giaever G, Chu AM, Davis RW, Brown JM. A genome-wide screen in Saccharomyces cerevisiae for genes affecting UV radiation sensitivity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001; 98:12608-13. [PMID: 11606770 PMCID: PMC60101 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.231366398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent completion of the deletion of essentially all of the ORFs in yeast is an important new resource for identifying the phenotypes of unknown genes. Each ORF is replaced with a cassette containing unique tag sequences that allow rapid parallel analysis of strains in a pool by using hybridization to a high-density oligonucleotide array. We examined the utility of this system to identify genes conferring resistance to UV irradiation by using a pool of 4,627 individual homozygous deletion strains (representing deletions of all nonessential genes). We identified most of the nonessential genes previously shown to be involved in nucleotide excision repair, in cell cycle checkpoints, in homologous recombination, and in postreplication repair after UV damage. We also identified and individually confirmed, by replacing the genes, three new genes, to our knowledge not previously reported to confer UV sensitivity when deleted. Two of these newly identified genes have human orthologs associated with cancer, demonstrating the potential of this system to uncover human genes affecting sensitivity to DNA-damaging agents and genes potentially involved in cancer formation.
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24 |
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Smith AM, Heisler LE, St Onge RP, Farias-Hesson E, Wallace IM, Bodeau J, Harris AN, Perry KM, Giaever G, Pourmand N, Nislow C. Highly-multiplexed barcode sequencing: an efficient method for parallel analysis of pooled samples. Nucleic Acids Res 2010; 38:e142. [PMID: 20460461 PMCID: PMC2910071 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkq368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Next-generation sequencing has proven an extremely effective technology for molecular counting applications where the number of sequence reads provides a digital readout for RNA-seq, ChIP-seq, Tn-seq and other applications. The extremely large number of sequence reads that can be obtained per run permits the analysis of increasingly complex samples. For lower complexity samples, however, a point of diminishing returns is reached when the number of counts per sequence results in oversampling with no increase in data quality. A solution to making next-generation sequencing as efficient and affordable as possible involves assaying multiple samples in a single run. Here, we report the successful 96-plexing of complex pools of DNA barcoded yeast mutants and show that such 'Bar-seq' assessment of these samples is comparable with data provided by barcode microarrays, the current benchmark for this application. The cost reduction and increased throughput permitted by highly multiplexed sequencing will greatly expand the scope of chemogenomics assays and, equally importantly, the approach is suitable for other sequence counting applications that could benefit from massive parallelization.
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Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't |
15 |
148 |