Negative symptoms and psychosocial functioning in schizophrenia: neglected but important targets for treatment

BACKGROUND

Many patients with schizophrenia suffer from poor social functioning, with high levels of unemployment being one particular consequence. Negative symptoms tend to persist during periods of clinical stability and may have a detrimental effect on function. This paper aims to investigate the relationship between negative symptoms and ability to function.

METHODS

The EGOFORS study measured negative symptoms in 295 schizophrenia patients in 11 European sites using the PANSS Negative Subscale and assessment scales for psychosocial function: Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF), Personal and Social Performance (PSP), Quality of Life Scale (QLS), Functional Remission of General Schizophrenia (FROGS), Psychosocial Remission in Schizophrenia (PSRS) and Subjective Wellbeing under Neuroleptics (SWN). The relationships between the PANSS Negative Subscale and the functional scales were investigated, adjusting for differences between study sites. Being in work, duration of illness, age of onset and number of years of education were also investigated for a relationship with function.

RESULTS

There were strong, statistically significant correlations between PANSS Negative Subscale and all of the function scales (95% confidence intervals for the correlation coefficients: PSRS 0.77-0.91; FROGS 0.74-0.89; QLS 0.74-0.92; GAF 0.64-0.78; PSP 0.63-0.80) except the SWN. All of the functional scales except SWN were at least moderately related to one another. All of the items in each of the PANSS Negative Subscale and the function scales contributed to the relationships between them. Better functioning correlated strongly with participants being in work.

CONCLUSION

This study shows a strong and significant relationship between negative symptoms and psychosocial functioning. Given the impact of negative symptoms on psychosocial function, much more emphasis should be placed on developing effective treatments for negative symptoms, given that most patients with schizophrenia now live in community settings and require to function adequately to support their quality of life.

Isolation of two serotypes of equine adenovirus from horses in New Zealand

Two serologically unrelated adenoviruses were isolated from ill-thrifty young horses on a thoroughbred stud. The viruses differed in their cytopathic effects in cell culture and in their haemagglutination properties. A serological survey of horses in the northern half of the North Island showed the prevalence of precipitating antibodies against equine adenoviruses to be 39%.

Modification, crosslinking and reactive electrospinning of a thermoplastic medical polyurethane for vascular graft applications

Thermoplastic polyurethanes are used in a variety of medical devices and experimental tissue engineering scaffolds. Despite advances in polymer composition to improve their stability, the correct balance between chemical and mechanical properties is not always achieved. A model compound (MC) simulating the structure of a widely used medical polyurethane (Pellethane) was synthesized and reacted with aliphatic and olefinic acyl chlorides to study the reaction site and conditions. After adopting the conditions to the olefinic modification of Pellethane, processing into flat sheets, and crosslinking by thermal initiation or ultraviolet radiation, mechanical properties were determined. The modified polyurethane was additionally electrospun under ultraviolet light to produce a crosslinked tubular vascular graft prototype. Model compound studies showed reaction at the carbamide nitrogen, and the modification of Pellethane with pentenoyl chloride could be accurately controlled to up to 20% (correlation: rho=0.99). Successful crosslinking was confirmed by insolubility of the materials. Initiator concentrations were optimized and the crosslink densities shown to increase with increasing modification. Crosslinking of Pellethane containing an increasing number of pentenoyl groups resulted in decreases (up to 42%, p<0.01) in the hysteresis and 44% in creep (p<0.05), and in a significant improvement in degradation resistance in vitro. Modified Pellethane was successfully electrospun into tubular grafts and crosslinked using UV irradiation during and after spinning to render them insoluble. Prototype grafts had sufficient burst pressure (>550 mm Hg), and compliances of 12.1+/-0.8 and 6.2+/-0.3%/100 mm Hg for uncrosslinked and crosslinked samples, respectively. It is concluded that the viscoelastic properties of a standard thermoplastic polyurethane can be improved by modification and subsequent crosslinking, and that the modified material may be electrospun and initiated to yield crosslinked scaffolds. Such materials hold promise for the production of vascular and other porous scaffolds, where decreased hysteresis and creep may be required to prevent aneurismal dilation.

Diagnostic exercise: Myocarditis due to Histophilus somni in feedlot and backgrounded cattle

A backgrounding operation for calves in Wyoming identified a disease syndrome presenting as lethargy, fever, and death between November and January each year. An unfixed heart was submitted for examination, along with samples of lung. There was focal red discoloration in papillary muscle of the left ventricular myocardium. Histologically, the lesion corresponded to acute necrotizing myocarditis with myriad intravascular and intralesional gram-negative coccobacilli. Histophilus somni was detected by bacterial culture and immunohistochemistry. Focal myocarditis due to H. somni occurs in fall-placed cattle in western provinces and states of North America, and it can be an appreciable source of death loss. Gross lesions are readily detected in affected hearts. The presence of such changes in papillary muscles of left ventricular myocardium in feedlot or backgrounded cattle should prompt a differential diagnosis of H. somni myocarditis.

Phylogenetic analyses and molecular epidemiology of European salmonid alphaviruses (SAV) based on partial E2 and nsP3 gene nucleotide sequences

Sequence data were generated for portions of the E2 and nsP3 genes of 48 salmonid alphaviruses from farmed Atlantic salmon (AS), Salmo salar L., and rainbow trout (RT), Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), in marine and freshwater environments, respectively, from the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, England, Scotland, Norway, France, Italy and Spain between 1991 and 2007. Based on these sequences, and those of six previously published reference strains, phylogenetic trees were constructed using the parsimony method. Trees generated with both gene segments were similar. Clades corresponding to the three previously recognized subtypes were generated and in addition, two further new clades of viruses were identified. A single further strain (F96-1045) was found to be distinct from all of the other strains in the study. The percentage of nucleotide divergence within clades was generally low (0-4.8% for E2, 0-6.6% for nsP3). Interclade divergence tended to be higher (3.4-19.7% for E2, 6.5-28.1% for nsP3). Based on these results and using current SAV terminology, the two new clades and F96-1045 were termed SAV subtypes 4, 5 and 6, respectively. SAV4 contained AS strains from Ireland and Scotland, while SAV5 contained only Scottish AS strains. Recently identified SAV strains from RT in Italy and Spain were shown to belong to SAV2. In addition, marine AS strains belonging to SAV2 were identified for the first time. Analysis of the origin of several clusters of strains with identical E2 and nsP3 sequences strongly support horizontal transmission of virus between farms and aquaculture companies. Evidence in support of vertical transmission was not found.

Immunological responses to semen in the female genital tract

When spermatozoa, seminal plasma and semen extender reach the uterus and interact with local leukocytes and endometrial cells, several immune mechanisms are initiated which have immediate, mid-term and long-term effects on ovulation, sperm cell selection, fertilization and pregnancy success by assuring the acceptance of fetal tissues. This report gives an overview on relevant key immune mechanisms following roughly the time axis after insemination. Detailed knowledge regarding these mechanisms will aid maximizing reproductive efficiency in livestock production. In the future, the many species involved will require a more comparative approach, since evidence is growing that endometrial physiology and the response to varying amounts and compositions of seminal plasma, various semen extenders, and variable numbers of spermatozoa also provoke different immune responses.

Exercise and manual auricular acupuncture: a pilot assessor-blind randomised controlled trial. (The acupuncture and personalised exercise programme (APEP) trial)

BACKGROUND

Evidence supports the use of exercise for chronic low back pain (CLBP); however, adherence is often poor due to ongoing pain. Auricular acupuncture is a form of pain relief involving the stimulation of points on the outer ear corresponding with specific body parts. It may be a useful adjunct to exercise in managing CLBP; however, there is only limited evidence to support its use with this patient group.

METHODS/DESIGN

This study was designed to test the feasibility of an assessor-blind randomised controlled trial which assess the effects on clinical outcomes and exercise adherence of adding manual auricular acupuncture to a personalised and supervised exercise programme (PEP) for CLBP. No sample size calculation has been carried out as this study aims to identify CLBP referral rates within the catchment area of the study site. The researchers aim to recruit four cohorts of n = 20 participants to facilitate a power analysis for a future randomised controlled trial. A computer generated random allocation sequence will be prepared centrally and used to allocate participants by cohort to one of the following interventions: 1) six weeks of PEP plus manual auricular acupuncture; 2) six weeks of PEP alone. Both groups will also complete a further six weeks of self-paced exercise with telephone follow-up support. In addition to a baseline and exit questionnaire at the beginning and end of the study, the following outcomes will be collected at baseline, and after 7, 13 and 25 weeks: pain frequency and bothersomeness, back-specific function, objective assessment and recall of physical activity, use of analgesia, perceived self-efficacy, fear avoidance beliefs, and beliefs about the consequences of back pain. Since this is a feasibility study, significance tests will not be presented, and treatment effects will be represented by point estimates and confidence intervals. For each outcome variable, analysis of covariance will be performed on the data, conditioning on the baseline value.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study investigating the adjuvant effects of auricular acupuncture to exercise in managing CLBP will be used to inform the design of a future multi-centre randomised controlled trial.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN94142364.

How effective are mental health nurses in A&E departments?

BACKGROUND

A&E departments are key points of contact for many people with mental health problems. Various models of care have been developed in A&E departments for delivering mental health services, but few have been assessed for effectiveness. The present study aimed to assess the impact of a dedicated A&E psychiatric nurse service on several outcomes relevant to patients and clinicians.

METHODS

A crossover design was used to introduce a dedicated psychiatric nurse service (comprising four experienced community psychiatric nurses) into two busy UK A&E departments. Standardised assessments were completed for each patient, and a random sample of these independently assessed for quality. Data were also collected on the number of patients assessed, psychiatric nurse time employed, waiting times, onward referrals, repeat attendances, patient satisfaction, and staff views.

RESULTS

A&E staff referred about a third of patients judged to have mental health problems to the psychiatric nurse service; approximately half of those assessed had a psychiatric history. On average, assessments took 60 min and over 90% of the formulated management plans were judged appropriate by independent assessors. The psychiatric nurse intervention had little impact on waiting times or satisfaction levels for mental health patients, although there was evidence of a change in onward referral patterns.

COMMENT

Psychiatric nurse assessment services have been introduced in many A&E departments, although the evidence base for the effectiveness of this development is not well established. This study presents evidence that psychiatric nurses can provide an accurate assessment and referral service with advantages for patient care.

Depolarization and decreased surface expression of K+ channels contribute to NSAID-inhibition of intestinal restitution

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) contribute to gastrointestinal ulcer formation by inhibiting epithelial cell migration and mucosal restitution; however, the drug-affected signaling pathways are poorly defined. We investigated whether NSAID inhibition of intestinal epithelial migration is associated with depletion of intracellular polyamines, depolarization of membrane potential (E(m)) and altered surface expression of K(+) channels. Epithelial cell migration in response to the wounding of confluent IEC-6 and IEC-Cdx2 monolayers was reduced by indomethacin (100 microM), phenylbutazone (100 microM) and NS-398 (100 microM) but not by SC-560 (1 microM). NSAID-inhibition of intestinal cell migration was not associated with depletion of intracellular polyamines. Treatment of IEC-6 and IEC-Cdx2 cells with indomethacin, phenylbutazone and NS-398 induced significant depolarization of E(m), whereas treatment with SC-560 had no effect on E(m). The E(m) of IEC-Cdx2 cells was: -38.5+/-1.8 mV under control conditions; -35.9+/-1.6 mV after treatment with SC-560; -18.8+/-1.2 mV after treatment with indomethacin; and -23.7+/-1.4 mV after treatment with NS-398. Whereas SC-560 had no significant effects on the total cellular expression of K(v)1.4 channel protein, indomethacin and NS-398 decreased not only the total cellular expression of K(v)1.4, but also the cell surface expression of both K(v)1.4 and K(v)1.6 channel subunits in IEC-Cdx2. Both K(v)1.4 and K(v)1.6 channel proteins were immunoprecipitated by K(v)1.4 antibody from IEC-Cdx2 lysates, indicating that these subunits co-assemble to form heteromeric K(v) channels. These results suggest that NSAID inhibition of epithelial cell migration is independent of polyamine-depletion, and is associated with depolarization of E(m) and decreased surface expression of heteromeric K(v)1 channels.

An outbreak of vulvovaginitis in goats caused by a caprine herpesvirus

A caprine herpesvirus related to infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus but immunologically distinct from that virus was isolated from an outbreak of vulvovaginitis in a herd of Saanen goats. The morbidity rate was 52.5%, with 21 of 40 does showing clinical signs. The lesions healed rapidly with only two goats showing lesions two weeks after the disease was first detected. No effect on subsequent reproductive performance was observed. The mode of transmission of the virus was believed to be venereal.

Parapoxvirus infections in New Zealand farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Outbreaks of infection due to a parapoxvirus were reported on eight New Zealand deer farms. Scabby lesions were seen variably on the muzzle, lips, face, ears and neck of red deer (Cervus elaphus) with morbidity rates reaching 100%. On three farms multifocal lesions were also present on the velvet. Deaths were reported on two properties where the lesions were extensive and secondary bacterial infections had occurred. On one of these farms multifactorial disease was suspected. Poxvirus particles were seen by negative contrast electron microscopy in scab material from all eight properties. Morphologically the deer virus resembled a parapoxvirus, but restriction endonuclease analysis showed its DNA fragment patterns were distinct from those of orf (contagious ecthyma) virus.

Fetal hemoglobin induction by the histone deacetylase inhibitor, scriptaid

Many different classes of drugs induce fetal hemoglobin (HbF) including histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors such as butyrate and trichostatin A. Although these agents induce gamma-globin expression in culture many are ineffective in vivo, therefore research efforts continue to identify clinically useful fetal globin inducers. We and others demonstrated a role for p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) in gamma-globin promoter activation by HDAC inhibitors. In this study we determined the ability of scriptaid, a novel HDAC inhibitor, to induce gamma-globin expression via p38 MAPK signaling. Scriptaid induced gamma-globin in K562 cells and human erythroid progenitors. Furthermore the p38-selective inhibitor SB203580 completely reversed the ability of scriptaid to induce HbF. To test the potential efficacy of scriptaid in humans, in vivo studies were completed in beta-YAC transgenic mice where the gamma-gene is completely silenced. Scriptaid induced reticulocytosis and human gamma-globin mRNA synthesis. At a concentration of 1 mg/kg/day given by intraperitoneal injections twice weekly we observed a significant 1.8-fold increase in gamma-globin mRNA transcripts. The potential for scriptaid as a treatment option for sickle cell disease will be discussed.

Ventricular tachycardia following naloxone administration in an illicit drug misuse

A case of ventricular tachycardia in a 37-year-old man after ingestion of heroin and cocaine, treated with naloxone is described. The arrhythmia is attributed to unopposed sympathomemetic effects of cocaine following administration of naloxone. The pro-rhythmogenic effects of naloxone may have contributed to the arrhythmia. He was initially treated sequentially with intravenous magnesium sulphate, calcium gluconate, sodium bicarbonate and lignocaine infusion, with no resolution of the ventricular tachycardia. He was admitted to the coronary care unit and was given an amiodarone infusion which converted the rhythm to sinus rhythm. Forensic physicians administering naloxone to poly-drug abuser in a custodial setting should be aware of potentially fatal consequences which they will be unable to detect. It is recommended that all such patients should be transferred to hospital for observation and investigation.

Only low levels of exogenous N-acetyltransferase can be achieved in transgenic mice

Therapeutic and environmental aromatic amines and hydrazines are substrates for the arylamine N-acetyltransferases (NAT). In all, 10 transgenic lines containing either the human NAT1 or NAT2 transgene were developed using multiple promoters. The presence of the transgene was confirmed by determining copy number, mRNA and enzyme activity. Despite some lines having high copy numbers of the transgene, only modest or no increases in enzymatic activity could be found in a variety of tissues. The NAT1 transgene could not be bred to homozygosity. The cytomegalovirus (CMV)-promoted NAT1 transgene increased endogenous Nat1 mRNA levels in liver and had little effect on endogenous Nat2 mRNA levels. The presence of the CMV-promoted NAT2 transgene appeared to suppress endogenous hepatic Nat2 mRNA, but did not alter Nat1 mRNA levels. The failure to achieve high expression of any of the transgenes suggests that overexpression of NAT genes may have harmful effects during development.

Aripiprazole in schizophrenia: consensus guidelines

Schizophrenia is a chronic disabling disease which in the majority of cases requires long-term treatment with antipsychotic medication. Before the development of atypical antipsychotics, treatment choice was restricted to conventional (or typical) antipsychotics, which are known to cause a range of side effects including extrapyramidal symptoms. Although atypical agents provide a favourable alternative (advocated by the National Institute of Clinical Excellence in the UK), they are associated with side effects. These differ between agents, but can include weight gain, sedation and hyperprolactinaemia. Aripiprazole is a newly available atypical antipsychotic for the treatment of schizophrenia. With the apparent imitations of currently available medications, aripiprazole provides clinicians with another treatment option. The purpose of these guidelines is to outline the consensus reached by the Schizophrenia Innovation Working Group on best practice in prescribing and appropriate use of aripiprazole in the UK.